Hypernatremic thirst deficiency and memory disorders following hypothalamic lesions.
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Adult↗
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Evidence against response bias in temporal order tasks with attention manipulation by masked primes.
Attending to a location shortens the perceptual latency of stimuli appearing at this location (perceptual latency priming). According to attentional explanations, perceptual latency priming relies on the speeded transfer of attended visual information into an internal model. However, doubts about the attentional origin have repeatedly been raised because efforts to minimize response bias have been insufficient in most studies. Five experiments investigated the contribution of a response bias to perceptual latency priming (judgment bias due to the two-alternative forced-choice method and due to the existence of the prime, criterion effects or second-order bias, sensorimotor priming). If any, only small response biases were found. The results thus support the attentional explanation.
Adult↗
Instrumental and Pavlovian incentive processes have dissociable effects on components of a heterogeneous instrumental chain.
Two experiments compared the effects of Pavlovian stimuli and incentive learning on the performance of a heterogeneous chain of instrumental actions. Using a Pavlovian-instrumental transfer design, the authors found that only a stimulus paired with the same outcome as that earned by performance of the chain produced positive transfer, an effect that was restricted to the action in the chain most proximal to reward delivery. In contrast, after a shift to a nondeprived state, only animals that had previously consumed the instrumental outcome when they were nondeprived decreased instrumental performance. Furthermore, this effect of the incentive learning treatment was limited to performance of the distal action. Together these data suggest that Pavlovian and instrumental incentive manipulations have dissociable effects on instrumental performance.
Animals↗
Perceived facial expressions of emotion as motivational incentives: evidence from a differential implicit learning paradigm.
Participants (N = 216) were administered a differential implicit learning task during which they were trained and tested on 3 maximally distinct 2nd-order visuomotor sequences, with sequence color serving as discriminative stimulus. During training, 1 sequence each was followed by an emotional face, a neutral face, and no face, using backward masking. Emotion (joy, surprise, anger), face gender, and exposure duration (12 ms, 209 ms) were varied between participants; implicit motives were assessed with a picture-story exercise. For power-motivated individuals, low-dominance facial expressions enhanced and high-dominance expressions impaired learning. For affiliation-motivated individuals, learning was impaired in the context of hostile faces. These findings did not depend on explicit learning of fixed sequences or on awareness of sequence-face contingencies.
Adult↗
Are mathematics disabilities due to a domain-general or a domain-specific working memory deficit?
The relationship between verbal and visual-spatial working memory and mathematical computation skill was examined in children and adults with and without disabilities in mathematics. A hierarchical regression analysis showed that, when partialing for the influence of reading ability, age, and gender, mathematical computation was better predicted by verbal than by visual-spatial working memory. Furthermore, the results showed that the relationship between mathematics ability and working memory were not significantly moderated by age but were stable across a broad age span. We concluded that, regardless of age, deficits in mathematics are mediated by both a domain-general and a domain-specific working memory system.
Adolescent↗
Perspective taking promotes action understanding and learning.
People often learn actions by watching others. The authors propose and test the hypothesis that perspective taking promotes encoding a hierarchical representation of an actor's goals and subgoals-a key process for observational learning. Observers segmented videos of an object assembly task into coarse and fine action units. They described what happened in each unit from either the actor's, their own, or another observer's perspective and later performed the assembly task themselves. Participants who described the task from the actor's perspective encoded actions more hierarchically during observation and learned the task better.
Analysis of Variance↗
Digit and shape memory function in soroban learners: are soroban learners superior in general?
The memory function of 15 soroban learners and 13 novices was examined on visual memory tasks. Analysis showed soroban learners were superior in performance of digit recall but not of shape recall. This result seems to reflect the tendency for soroban groups to be better in processing some kinds of spatial than categorical properties. Based upon these results, effects of soroban learning on brain function were discussed.
Attention↗
Cognitive sequence knowledge: what is learned?
In 4 experiments, participants performed running-arithmetic tasks. These tasks involved a sequential ordering of individual operations and a structure of subgoals that defined how calculations fit together in purpose. Consistent transitions between adjacent steps facilitated performance only when subgoal structures were relatively simple. When subgoal structures were more complex, consistent mapping of operations to serial locations produced a slight benefit. Consistency of subgoal structure produced a substantial benefit in both speed and accuracy, and some knowledge of subgoal structure integrated with knowledge of the sequence of operations. Apparently, a task's subgoal structure imposes demands that either facilitate or obscure benefits of sequence consistencies. The benefits are attributed to increased efficiency in using working memory.
Adult↗
Executive functioning and verbal memory in young patients with unipolar depression and schizophrenia.
Although neuropsychological studies have consistently reported executive deficits in schizophrenia, studies of executive functions in depression have produced equivocal results. The aim of this study was to examine the profile and the specificity of the executive impairment and its association with memory performance in young patients with unipolar depression. We compared patients with depression to normal control subjects and schizophrenics. Twenty young inpatients with unipolar depression, 14 schizophrenics and 20 age-, education- and IQ-matched control subjects were assessed with a neuropsychological battery including: (1) verbal memory task; (2) frontal tasks (WCST, Cognitive Estimate, Verbal fluency, verbal and visuo-spatial span) and a new complex sorting test (Delis test). Depressed patients and schizophrenics exhibited executive deficits. Unlike schizophrenics, depressed patients did not show memory impairment. Deficits in several 'higher-level' functions combined to produce executive impairments in patients with depression including complex integration for concept formation, spontaneous cognitive flexibility and initiation ability. Impaired functions in schizophrenia and in depressed patients were similar but were differently related to clinical variables. The pattern of memory failure in our schizophrenics is believed to reflect retrieval and encoding deficits. Our findings highlight the heterogeneity of skills grouped under the term 'executive functions' that are vulnerable in depression or schizophrenia.
Adolescent↗
Human neurologic function and the aging process.
Sixty-one normal men whose ages ranged from 20 to 80 years were evaluated on two occasions by means of a comprehensive series of 128 instrumented tests of neurologic function. The tests measured cognition, vision, strength, steadiness, reactions, speed, coordination, fatigue, gait, station, sensations, and tasks of daily living. The reliability of each test measured was determined, and any measure found unreliable (r less than or equal to 0.41) was not further analyzed. Significant age-related linear decreases were found for almost all neurologic functions. The declines over the age span varied from less than 10 percent to more than 90 percent for different functions. For the upper extremities, the largest declines (greater than 50 percent) were in hand-force steadiness, speed of hand-arm movements, and vibration sense; for the lower extremities, the largest declines were in one-legged balance with eyes closed and in vibration sense. For 13 of 14 tests in which significant dominant body-side effects were found, larger re-testing 7-10 days later, the subjects improved their scores by more than 5 percent on only 17 tests, 9 of which concerned the activities of daily living. No significant differential learning effects were found across age groups. The results point to the importance of developing a data bank on age-based neurologic function so that therapeutic effects can be evaluated in terms of age- and sex-matched normal functioning.
Adult↗
The role of working memory in spatial enumeration: patterns of selective interference in subitizing and counting.
Articulatory suppression (repeatedly pronouncing a syllable or word while carrying out another task) is thought to interfere selectively with the phonological store in working memory. Although suppression interferes with temporal enumeration (enumerating successive light flashes), to date there has been little evidence of such interference in spatial enumeration (enumerating units laid out in space at one time)--a finding with serious ramifications for theories of enumeration. Participants carried out a spatial enumeration task, enumerating 1-8 dots while listening to a metronome (baseline condition) or while carrying out a secondary task to the rhythm of the metronome (dual-task condition). There were four secondary tasks: simple articulation (saying a letter), complex articulation (alternating between two letters), simple tapping (tapping a finger), and complex tapping (alternating between two fingers). Interference varied with number of items, but the pattern differed from that observed with temporal enumeration.
Association Learning↗
Explicit knowledge and intention to learn in sequence learning: an event-related potential study.
The present study was performed to examine how intention to learn and explicit knowledge in sequence learning are reflected in event-related potentials. Participants responded to numerals presented in a repeating order, which were replaced infrequently by deviant numerals. The participants were given incidental or intentional learning instructions. Sequence parts for which they acquired explicit knowledge were identified for each participant by post-task memory tests. Reaction times indicated that sequence learning occurred under both types of instruction. The N2 enhancement for deviants was primarily associated with explicit sequence knowledge, and the P3 enhancement showed a weak association. These results suggested that N2 and P3 reflect different aspects of explicit learning.
Adolescent↗
Metipranolol and propranolol: no CNS effects of a single oral dose.
Effects of single oral doses of the beta-blocking drugs propranolol (40 mg) and metipranolol (Disorat, Boehringer, Mannheim, FRG, 5 and 20 mg), in comparison with placebo, on mental performance and psychophysiological measures were investigated in a double-blind crossover study comprising 12 healthy volunteers. Effects were evaluated using a battery of highly reliable and sensitive computerized indices of mental performance and a comprehensive range of psychophysiological measures. Propranolol and metipranolol had no effects on mental performance, in contrast to findings in a previous study for bunitrolol (Stresson, Boehringer, Ingelheim, FRG). There were marked effects on some autonomic functions; dose-dependent for heart rate and heart rate response, and dose-independent for blood pressure and finger tremor. In the previous study bunitrolol had no effect on tremor and blood pressure and a less marked effect on heart rate. The lack of psychotropic effects for metipranolol and propranolol as compared to bunitrolol cannot be predicted from pharmacokinetic properties or peripheral effects of the three drugs, arguing for the need for systematic screening using psychometric and psychophysiological methods of current and new beta-blocking drugs. A comparison between the effect of propranolol given in a single oral dose and findings in a previous study with repeated administration suggested that the differences in effect profile between acute and chronic administration of the drug are small.
Adrenergic beta-Antagonists↗
Stimulus classes in matching to sample and sequence production: the emergence of numeric relations.
We investigated interrelationships among stimulus classes established in matching-to-sample and sequence-production tasks. The analysis focused on the matching and sequencing of quantities, numerals, and arbitrary forms in two individuals with mental retardation. The basic protocol involved: (a) establishing both matching and sequencing performances with some stimuli, (b) training sequencing with a new set of stimuli and assessing whether new matching performances emerged, and (c) training matching with a new set of stimuli and assessing whether new sequencing emerged. The results showed that sequence training did not readily lead to new matching performances, unlike prior research with college students. In contrast, training in matching to sample yielded emergent sequence production; these data support prior studies involving children and adults without developmental disabilities. The results extend prior stimulus class research and suggest an important role for stimulus control processes in the production of generative numeric performances.
Adult↗
Comparison of the Auditory-Verbal Learning Test (AVLT) and California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT) in a sample of normal subjects.
Compared performance on Rey Auditory-Verbal Learning Test and California Verbal Learning Test. Slightly higher scores were obtained on CVLT variables. No significant differences were found for order of test administration. Results were interpreted to show minimal practice effects for different list-learning tests administered in the same test battery.
Adult↗
Differential effects of age on sequence learning and sensorimotor adaptation.
Although many studies have documented declines in the ability of the elderly to learn new manual motor skills, studies have not directly compared the capacity of older adults to learn sequences versus adapt to sensorimotor perturbations within the context of the same task paradigm, despite differences in the underlying neural mechanisms and strategic processes supporting the two types of learning. The purpose of the current study was to exploit these task differences in an effort to determine whether aging results in a generalized or more specific skill learning deficit. Groups of young and older adult subjects learned to make a sequence of actions, adapted to one of two visuomotor rotations, or adapted to an altered gain of display, all while performing the same basic manual joystick aiming task. While the older adults exhibited normal sequence learning in comparison to the young adults, they exhibited impairments in all three of the adaptation tasks. These deficits in adaptation for the older adults were associated with hypometric movements and reduced velocity modulation in comparison to that seen in the younger adults. These data suggest that older adults may have greater difficulty with learning cerebellar-mediated motor skills.
Acclimatization↗
The relationship between skill learning and repetition priming: experimental and computational analyses.
Skill learning and repetition priming are considered by some to be supported by separate memory systems. The authors examined the relationship between skill learning and priming in 3 experiments using a digit entering task, in which participants were presented with unique and repeated 5-digit strings with controlled sequential structure. Both skill learning and priming were observed across a wide range of skill levels. Performance reflected the effects of learning at 3 different levels of stimulus structure, calling into question a binary dichotomy between item-specific priming and general skill learning. Two computational models were developed which demonstrated that previous dissociations between skill learning and priming can occur within a single memory system. The experimental and computational results are interpreted as suggesting that skill learning and priming should be viewed as 2 aspects of a single incremental learning mechanism.
Adult↗
Digit span and other WISC-R scores in the diagnosis of dyslexia in children.
The examination of subtest scores on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale is needed to provide confirmatory evidence for various subtest categorizations as there is no consensus about what patterns might be diagnostically useful. The present study supports the use of the ACID/AVID profiles (Arithmetic, Coding or Vocabulary, Information, and Digit Span) as elements in the diagnosis of dyslexia. WISC-R scores from 44 subjects were analyzed for specific subtest patterns of scores which might separate dyslexic individuals from the WISC-R standardization group. Perhaps some WISC-R ACID/AVID profile pattern analyses may be valid in the diagnosis of a stringently defined population of learning disabled individuals such as dyslexic children.
Adolescent↗