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PubMed2006

Ecopathological approach in tropical countries: a challenge in intensified production systems.

From the 1960s, in developed countries, epidemiological approach widened in veterinary sciences in order to understand and analyze the emergence of "production diseases" in "modern farms" where animal management was compared to industrial process. This approach was linked to "productivism" in livestock farming system. In France, this approach included formerly the understanding of farmers' practices and considered the health disorders as an output of farming system. This theory was known as "ecopathological approach." Since 2000, the main purpose for veterinary sciences seems to be now emerging diseases. In tropical countries, a high intensification of livestock production is expected, especially in periurban areas. This intensification linked to a general better control of main infectious diseases (i.e., Rinderpest, CBPP, anthrax) in such farming system leads to many changes in the farming practices and is associated to the emergence of production diseases as mastitis or infertility in dairy farms, respiratory diseases in pig farms and so on. In those conditions, it is suggested to initiate ecopathological approach in these intensified systems in order to identify the main risk factors due to farmers' practices, environmental conditions, and herd characteristics. The general methodology and some examples in tropical countries (Chad, Brazil, and Senegal) are proposed in the present article.

Animal Husbandry↗
PubMed1992

Organisation of veterinary public health activities in countries of the Eastern Mediterranean region.

This review covers the organisation of veterinary public health (VPH) activities in countries of the Eastern Mediterranean region, with reference to zoonoses and hazards to man from foods of animal origin. A study of the region shows that no separate VPH units exist within the national Veterinary Services. Although these Services are gradually being upgraded and strengthened, most of their resources are spent in controlling serious contagious animal diseases such as foot and mouth disease, rinderpest and Newcastle disease. Rabies, present in almost every country of the region, is a zoonosis which no Veterinary Service can ignore. Other serious zoonoses affecting the region include echinococcosis, brucellosis, leishmaniasis, anthrax, toxoplasmosis and tuberculosis. Salmonellosis is one of the most serious food-borne zoonoses, while hazards from the increased presence of additives, pesticides, antibiotics and hormones in foods of animal origin are other emerging VPH problems. Many obstacles hamper efficient reorganisation of VPH activities. These include the inherited colonial system of assigning VPH activities to other authorities (health inspectors) rather than to Veterinary Services; the confusion as to which authority should actually be responsible in a given field; the lack of epidemiological studies and knowledge of the real extent of VPH problems; lack of training; inadequately staffed and poorly equipped Veterinary Services; and lack of public awareness. Nonetheless, a few countries have made excellent progress in reorganising VPH activities and in eradicating serious zoonoses. International organisations like the OIE, FAO and WHO can help greatly in establishing efficient VPH programmes.

Africa, Northern↗
PubMed1992

Serological survey for bovine bacterial and viral pathogens in captive Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx Pallas, 1776).

Tests for antibodies to bovine bacterial and viral pathogens were conducted on 239 sera from 128 Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx) from seven locations (Taif, Riyadh and Mahazat as Said, Saudi Arabia; San Diego, United States of America [USA]; Shaumari, Jordan; Qatar; and Bahrain). No antibodies to Pasteurella multocida type E or epizootic haemorrhagic disease 1 virus were found. Antibodies to Brucella abortus, P. multocida type B, P. multocida type D, lumpy skin disease virus and Akabane virus were detected in 2, 1, 5, 2 and 1 animals, respectively. Evidence of P. multocida type A, Coxiella burnetti, Chlamydia psittaci and parainfluenza 3 virus was found in 3 herds (prevalence in the main herd [n = 78]: 8%), 3 herds (8%), 6 herds (7%) and 5 herds (15%), respectively. Evidence of antibodies against bluetongue virus was found in five oryx from the USA and in one oryx from the Taif herd. Antibody vaccinal titres against rinderpest virus (and the virus of peste des petits ruminants, due to cross-reactions) were found in almost all the herds. This is the first report of antibodies against B. abortus, C. burnetti, C. psittaci, parainfluenza 3 virus and Akabane virus in the genus Oryx.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

Prevalence of morbilliviruses among pinniped and cetacean species.

Since 1987, morbillivirus infections have caused serious disease outbreaks with high mortality among aquatic mammals. Baikal seals (Phoca sibirica) in Siberia were involved in an outbreak caused by a virus closely related to canine distemper virus (CDV) in 1987. Harbour seals (Phoca vitulina) and grey seals (Halichoerus grypus) in north-western Europe were struck by a newly recognised morbillivirus of seals (PDV1). A serological survey has indicated that these morbillivirus infections frequently occur among several pinniped species. Besides pinnipeds, the presence of morbillivirus infections among cetaceans, including whales, dolphins and porpoises, has been demonstrated since the outbreak of PDV among seals in north-western Europe. Morbillivirus was isolated from several stranded harbour porpoises (Phocoena phocoena). This virus proved to be very similar to a virus which was isolated during a disease outbreak with high mortality among striped dolphins (Stenella coeruleoalba) in the Mediterranean area. The viruses isolated from these cetacean species were quite different from the viruses isolated from the seals. They proved more related to the ruminant morbilliviruses, peste des petits ruminants virus and rinderpest virus. The potential transmission of the dolphin morbillivirus to the endangered population of the Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus) has been considered. Studies are presently being conducted into the possibility of inducing protection against morbillivirus infection in this species by vaccination with an immune stimulating complex (ISCOM) preparation based on CDV.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Overview and epidemiology of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia in Africa.

Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) is widespread in Africa and in other regions of the world. This disease is particularly important in the semi-arid, sub-humid and arid zones of tropical Africa, but CBPP incidence seems to be increasing in some parts of East Africa. The epidemiology of CBPP is characterised by the occurrence of sub-acute and symptomless infections, and the persistence of chronic carriers. Spread of the disease is associated with cattle movement. The major obstacles to eradication of CBPP are the difficulties in controlling cattle movement and applying quarantine and slaughter policies. Other difficulties arise due to the absence of a field test for diagnosis, the relatively short duration of post-vaccinal immunity and the lack of data on the economic impact of the disease. The Pan-African Rinderpest Campaign strategy for CBPP control and eradication conforms with national control programmes, which include cost/benefit analysis. It is planned to perform blanket vaccination against the disease for three to five years, depending on the economic situation of each country. Stringent control of cattle movement will complement vaccination campaigns. The eradication phase, including slaughter measures, will be instituted following reduction of CBPP incidence. Regional and international coordination will be instituted to control international cattle movement and harmonise control strategies.

Africa↗
PubMed2002

Infectious animal diseases: the wildlife/livestock interface.

The long-standing conflict between livestock owners and animal health authorities on the one hand, and wildlife conservationists on the other, is largely based on differing attitudes to controlling diseases of livestock which are associated with wildlife. The authors have attempted to highlight the fact that these disease problems are frequently bi-directional at the wildlife/livestock interface. The different categories of diseases involved are presented. A new dimension being faced by veterinary regulatory authorities is the spectre of emerging sylvatic foci of diseases, such as bovine tuberculosis, bovine brucellosis and possibly rinderpest; these diseases threaten to undermine national and international eradication schemes, which have been implemented and executed with significant success, and at great cost. Conversely, wildlife-based ecotourism world-wide has expanded rapidly over the past decade and is the source of lacking foreign revenue for many developing countries. Traditional subsistence farming is still the largest source of much-needed protein on some continents and this, together with the growth and hunger of historically disadvantaged communities for land, is forcing enterprises and communities with markedly different objectives and land-use practices to operate effectively in close proximity. Some land-users rely exclusively on wildlife, others on livestock and/or agronomy, while yet others need to combine these activities. The net result may be an expansion or intensification of the interface between wildlife and domestic livestock, which will require innovative control strategies that permit differing types of wildlife/livestock interaction, and that do not threaten the land-use options of neighbours, or the ability of a country to market animals and animal products profitably.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Molecular weapons against agricultural vulnerability and the war on terror.

The multiple reports in this issue of the Journal from the Agenda for Action conference, coupled with the analysis by the National Academy of Sciences, the National Research Council, and the Auditor General (UK) on bioterror preparedness and homeland security, highlight the immediate need for rapid disease detection and advanced diagnostic capabilities to protect the public health, animal agriculture, and the numerous associated economies in the United States. In response to the potentially devastating consequences that could arise, there is an acute need for rapid detection of a variety of the lethal foreign animal diseases, such as foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV), highly pathogenic strains of avian influenza, classical swine fever, rinderpest, exotic Newcastle disease virus (END), and domestic, vesicular look-alike diseases that include bluetongue, epizootic hemorrhagic disease, vesicular stomatitis, bovine herpes IBR, contagious ecthyma, bovine herpes mammilitis virus, vesicular exanthema, malignant catarrhal fever, and papular stomatitis. Some striking advances are occurring in the creation of rapid technology, including microfluidics, robotics, miniaturization, and biostabilization that are quickly being applied to the development of rapid microbial detection assays. These are now providing important weapons to combat this agricultural vulnerability.

Animal Diseases↗
PubMed2002

Prevalence, distribution, and host range of Peste des petits ruminants virus, Turkey.

Peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV, genus Morbillivirus), which causes a severe disease in sheep and goats, has only recently been officially declared to be present in Turkey. We carried out a study to determine the prevalence, distribution, and host range of PPRV in Turkey. A total of 1,607 animals, reared in 18 different locations, were monitored for the presence of antibodies to PPRV and the related virus of large ruminants, Rinderpest virus (RPV). Only two farms had animals that were free of antibody responses to either disease. Prevalence for PPRV infection varied (range 0.87%-82.6%) and was higher in sheep (29.2%) than in goats (20%). The overall antibody responses to PPRV and RPV were 22.4% and 6.28%, respectively. Two PPRVs of lineage 4, which comprises many other PPRVs whose origins are in the Middle East, the Arabian Peninsula, and southern Asia, were isolated from Turkish sheep.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

A preliminary investigation of tuberculosis and other diseases in African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) in Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda.

A survey to determine the prevalence of bovine tuberculosis caused by Mycobacterium bovis and certain other infectious diseases was conducted on 42 free-ranging African buffaloes, (Syncerus caffer) from May to June 1997 in the Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda. Using the gamma interferon test, exposure to M. bovis was detected in 21.6% of the buffaloes. One dead buffalo and an emaciated warthog (Phacochoerus aethiopicus) that was euthanased, were necropsied; both had miliary granulomas from which M. bovis was isolated. None of the buffaloes sampled in Sector A of the park, which has no cattle interface, tested positive for bovine tuberculosis (BTB) exposure. The prevalence and distribution of BTB does not appear to have changed significantly since the 1960s, but this may be due to fluxes in the buffalo population. Serological testing for foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) demonstrated positive exposure of 57.1% of the buffaloes sampled, with types A, O and SAT 1-3, which is the first known report of FMD antibodies to A and O types in free ranging African buffaloes. Foot-and-mouth disease virus types SAT 1 and SAT 3 were isolated from buffalo probang samples. Two percent of the buffaloes had been exposed to brucellosis. None of the buffaloes tested had antibodies to rinderpest, leptospirosis or Q fever.

Animals↗
PubMed1976

Response of white-tailed deer to infection with peste des petits ruminants virus.

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) were infected experimentally with two strains of peste des petits ruminants virus. The response varied from fatal consequence to subclinical infection. The clinical signs and gross lesions were similar to those in goats. Virus was recovered from all the infected deer, and survivors developed specific antibodies demonstrated by complement fixation and virus neutralization tests. Survivors also resisted challenge with virulent rinderpest virus that was lethal to a control deer.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Neutralizing antibodies to phocine distemper virus in Atlantic walruses (Odobenus rosmarus rosmarus) from Arctic Canada.

The first evidence of phocine distemper virus (PDV) infection in Atlantic walruses (Odobenus rosmarus rosmarus) from Nottingham Island, Northwest Territories, Canada, is reported. Blood samples were collected from three male walruses killed by Inuit hunters in the fall of 1990. Differential virus neutralization test for each animal yielded higher titers against PDV than against other members of the Morbillivirus genus including canine distemper, peste des petits ruminants, rinderpest and measles viruses. Thus, PDV infection may be enzootic in walruses of the eastern Canadian Arctic.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Serologic surveillance for selected viral agents in captive and free-ranging populations of Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx) from Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates.

A total of 294 sera collected between 1999 and 2001 from eight captive and one free-ranging herds of Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx) distributed in Saudi Arabia (SA) and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) were assayed for antibodies against 13 selected viral agents. Arabian oryx have been exposed to bluetongue virus (BTV), epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus (EHDV), rinderpest virus (RPV), bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV), bovine adenovirus 3 (BAV-3), cervid herpesvirus-1, foot-and-mouth disease virus, equine herpesvirus 9, and bovine viral diarrhea virus. The high seroprevalence to BTV and EHDV in the UAE and SA indicates that Arabian oryx are likely to be susceptible to infection by these viruses and therefore could act as a source of virus to vectors during the infective stage of infection. Moreover, antibodies were detected against RPV and BRSV in sera from SA and against BAV-3 in sera from the UAE. No antibodies were found against bovine herpesvirus-1, caprine herpesvirus-1, enzootic bovine leucosis virus, and peste des petits ruminants virus. On the basis of these results, caution should be applied when considering translocation of Arabian oryx, and only those proven to be free of infectious agents that might present a risk to other species should be moved.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

[Attempts to inoculate against plague in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries].

In the middle of the 18th century, inoculation against smallpox became more and more common, and attempts were also made to test the same principle, viz. inoculation with the agents causing the disease for other human and animal diseases. It was tried for rinderpest, measles and sheep pox. In addition, there were some suggestions for using the principle against the plague. The disease had disappeared from Western Europe by this time, but still raged in eastern countries, such as Russia. However, the government rejected the proposal for trial inoculations in Moscow. During the first half of the 19th century, the plague was still widespread in the Middle East, where different European doctors worked on combatting it. The first documented inoculation trial was carried out by a certain Mr. Whyte, an English physician who inoculated himself and four assistants in 1801. All five died a few days later. In the following years, more tests were carried out, inter alia: in 1802, by Desgenettes, the chief physician of the French army in the Middle East; in 1803, by Eusebio Valli, an Italian physician in Constantinople; in 1818 and 1819 by Sola, a Spanish physician in Tangier. However, none of these tests produced clear results. During the epidemic in Egypt in the 1830s, further inoculation tests were carried out by a group of French plague specialists with the main aim of establishing whether the plague could be transmitted between humans. These tests did not result in any clear conclusions either. Following the discovery of the plague bacillus at the end of the 19th century, a number of different live and dead vaccines were developed, and were also used in endemic areas, but the level of efficiency has never become very clear. This is not really surprising, as even the disease itself often does not provide strong immunity, and reinfections are by no means uncommon.

Europe↗
PubMedDate not supplied

The impact of new technologies on vaccines.

Vast changes are taking place in vaccinology consequent to the introduction of new technologies. Amongst the vaccines included in the Expanded Programme of Immunization (EPI), the pertussis vaccine has been replaced by acellular purified fractions devoid of side-effects. Non-pathogenic but immunogenic mutants of tetanus and diptheria toxins are likely to replace the toxoids. An effective vaccine against hepatitis B prepared by recombinant technology is in large-scale use. Conjugated vaccines against Haemophilus influenzae b, S. pneumococcus and meningococcus are now available, as also vaccines against mumps, rubella and measles. Combination vaccines have been devised to limit the number of injections. Vaccine delivery systems have been developed to deliver multiple doses of the vaccine at a single contact point. A genetically-engineered oral vaccine for typhoid imparts better and longer duration of immunity. Oral vaccines for cholera and other enteric infections are under clinical trials. The nose as a route for immunization is showing promise for mucosal immunity and for anti-inflammatory experimental vaccines against multiple sclerosis and insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. The range of vaccines has expanded to include pathogens resident in the body such as Helicobacter pylori (duodenal ulcer), S. mutans (dental caries), and human papilloma virus (carcinoma of the cervix). An important progress is the recognition that DNA alone can constitute the vaccines, inducing both humoral and cell-mediated immune responses. A large number of DNA vaccines have been made and shown interesting results in experimental animals. Live recombinant vaccines against rabies and rinderpest have proven to be highly effective for controlling these infections in the field, and those for AIDS are under clinical trial. Potent adjuvants have added to the efficacy of the vaccines. New technologies have emerged to 'humanize' mouse monoclonals by genetic engineering and express these efficiently in plants. These recombinant antibodies are opening out an era of highly specific and safe therapeutic interventions. Human recombinant antibodies would be invaluable for treating patients with terminal tetanus and rabies. Antibodies are already in use for treatment of cancer, rheumatoid arthritis and allergies. An advantage of preformed antibodies directed at a defined target and given in adequate amounts is the certainty of efficacy in every recipient, in contrast to vaccines, where the quality and quantum of immune response varies from individual to individual.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

A history of the traceability of animals and animal products.

The author presents a review of the history of traceability as applied to live animals and animal products from antiquity to the 19th Century. The evidence shows that livestock farmers, owners, and those in charge of animal production and health were concerned with traceability from a very early stage. With regard to live animals, individual identification by means of body markings has been practised for over 3,800 years (Code of Hammurabi). Branding with a red-hot iron, with or without a written record of animal characteristics, was employed in most ancient civilisations. This branding technique was principally used on valuable animals, in particular horses, in which case a written record was kept. Individual indelible branding was used on other species over the following centuries, for example, on swans belonging to the Kings of England as early as the 13th Century. Branding for disease control purposes commenced later, prompted by the major epizootics (rinderpest, contagious bovine pleuropneumonia, glanders and rabies). Marking of animals formed part of a series of very pragmatic measures, and the penalties in the event of violation were much more severe than is currently the case. Although modern traceability techniques were not available, our ancestors, as early as the 17th Century, practised indelible branding and strict health certification. Animal products were likewise closely monitored, particularly during the epidemics of human plague during the 14th Century. Some animal products could not be traded internationally unless accompanied by a certificate of origin guaranteeing safety. During the major epizootics of the 18th Century, some contaminated products (meat, hides) were cut up, slashed or covered with lime to indicate that the product was unfit for trade or consumption.

Animal Diseases↗
PubMed2001

Food on foot: long-distance trade in slaughter oxen between Denmark and the Netherlands (14th-18th century).

This paper presents a short review of the long-distance trade in slaughter oxen in Northwest Europe. The long-term development of the trade is described against the social-economic background of the production and consumption areas. In the 14th century, the Danes obtained the right to sell cattle in certain Dutch cities. From 1500 onwards, the export of oxen from Denmark and the adjacent duchy of Schleswig-Holstein increased considerably. The export reached its peak in the first quarter of the 17th century; registered export in 1612 amounted to more than 52.000 oxen over land and, in 1624, about 10.000 oxen over sea. Part of that export was destined for the Dutch market. Protectionist tax measures taken by the Dutch government and the outbreaks of rinderpest put an end to the regular ox trade in the first half of the 18th century. By decree, local authorities tried to prevent the spread of contagious animal diseases. The history of international cattle trade and hauling, however, indicates that economic motives largely outweighed animal welfare issues. Thus, in addition to addressing the logistics of the trade, this paper also addresses veterinary aspects and animal welfare issues related to the transport of cattle.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

[Malignant catarrhal fever in Switzerland: 2. Evaluation of the diagnosis].

Malignant catarrhal fever (MCF) is a mostly fatal lymphoproliferative disease of cattle. In 1995 a PCR based method was introduced for the detection of the ovine herpesvirus 2 (OvHV-2), which is regarded as the causative agent of the sheep-associated form of the disease. This PCR can be regarded as a gold standard for the in vivo diagnosis of sheep-associated MCF in cattle (Müller-Doblies et al., 1998). This semi-nested PCR was now used as a reference test for the reassessment of diagnostic criteria in the clinical and post mortem diagnosis that could previously not be quantitated. Based on 83 suspected cases with a complete clinical record the clinical signs were weighted and grouped according to their sensitivity and specificity into lead signs indicative of MCF and frequently accompanying signs supportive for the diagnosis of MCF and general clinical signs that were less reliable for the diagnosis. Differential diagnoses are discussed, which are of particular significance due to their status as OIE list A diseases e.g. foot-and-mouth disease or rinderpest. 38 PCR confirmed cattle with MCF served for the quantitative analysis of organ lesions. For the post mortem diagnosis an essential set of organ samples is defined to permit a reliable histological diagnosis, as the gross pathology often did not give any indication for the diagnosis. These criteria should help to improve the diagnostic efficiency and to select the appropriate laboratory diagnostic procedures for MCF-suspected cattle.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Global perspective for foot and mouth disease control.

The world distribution of foot and mouth disease (FMD) is almost a mirror image of the global economic structure. In general, industrialised countries are free while the disease is endemic in developing countries. In recent years, several incursions of FMD have been recorded in countries belonging to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), all of which have been financially and socially costly to eliminate. At the same time, this single disease bars many developing countries from participation in formal trade, both regionally and internationally. However, recent studies have predicted an unprecedented high demand for animal protein, which can only be met through enhanced participation of developing countries in trade in livestock products. Accordingly, globalisation trends will exacerbate the exclusion of poor communities and countries from markets unless a long-term strategy is implemented to progressively build market opportunities for these countries, without placing the livestock of industrialised countries at undue risk from FMD and other major transboundary animal diseases. The authors submit that there is sufficient knowledge of FMD to make an international initiative for the progressive control of FMD a viable objective. Consequently, a four-stage pathway is proposed for developing a global FMD programme. The proposed strategy involves a build-up of the epidemiology and global status of FMD, including establishing an international early warning system, a risk-reduction phase to lower the incidence of FMD in the primary endemic areas and a control phase leading to the creation of zones of assured FMD-freedom. The authors also propose that an international FMD programme be co-ordinated, based on the experience of the Global Rinderpest Eradication Programme, the Hemispheric Plan for the eradication of FMD for the Americas, the South-East Asia Foot and Mouth Disease control and eradication campaign and the European Commission for the Control of FMD.

Animals↗