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PubMed1994

Reflexes and the eye.

Reflexes are an essential part of protective and homeostatic function, both in general terms and with specific reference to ocular structures. A wide range of stimuli and responses, with varying degrees of central processing, is involved in such reflexes. The simplest reflexes are monosynaptic, such as the stretch or myotatic reflex. More complex polysynaptic reflexes are involved in many regulatory and protective functions--these include autonomic as well as somatic reflexes. Ocular autonomic reflexes include the oculocardiac, pupillary, accommodative and lacrimatory reflexes. Ocular somatic reflexes include eyelid and extra-ocular muscle reflexes (such as Bell's phenomenon, vestibulo-ocular and optokinetic reflexes). An account of the above reflexes is given in the format of an essay, modified from the FRACO Part I Examination in Physiology. The topic was 'Discuss reflex activities with particular reference to the eye'. The content is based on several of the texts recommended for the Part I Examination, as listed under references.

Blinking↗
PubMed1999

What functions do reflexes serve during human locomotion?

Studies on the reflex modulation of vertebrate locomotion have been conducted in many different laboratories and with many different preparations: for example, lamprey swimming, bird flight, quadrupedal walking in cats and bipedal walking in humans. Emerging concepts are that reflexes are task-, phase- and context-dependent. To function usefully in a behaviour such as locomotion wherein initial conditions change from step to step, reflexes would have to show modulation. Papers are reviewed in which the study of different reflexes have been conducted during different behaviours, with an emphasis on experiments in humans. A framework is developed in which the modulation and flexibility of reflexes are demonstrated. Alterations in cutaneous, and muscle (stretch and load receptor) reflexes between sitting, standing and walking are discussed. Studies in which both electrical, mechanical and 'natural' receptor activation have been conducted during walking are reviewed. Reflexes are shown to have important regulatory functions during human locomotion. A framework for discussion of reflex function throughout the step cycle is developed. The function of a given reflex pathway changes dynamically throughout the locomotor cycle. While all reflexes act in concert to a certain extent, generally cutaneous reflexes act to alter swing limb trajectory to avoid stumbling and falling. Stretch reflexes act to stabilize limb trajectory and assist force production during stance. Load receptor reflexes are shown to have an effect on both stance phase body weight support and step cycle timing. After neurotrauma or in disease, reflexes no longer function as during normal locomotion, but still have the potential to be clinically exploited in gait modification regimens.

Animals↗
PubMed1979

Changes in recurrent inhibition during voluntary soleus contractions in man studied by an H-reflex technique.

1. The recurrent inhibition, brought about by a conditioning H-reflex discharge, was estimated in human subjects by the amplitude of a test H-reflex involving only the soleus motoneurones which fired in response to the conditioning volley. The modifications of the recurrent inhibition during contraction were evaluated by comparing the amplitude of the test H-reflex to a reference H-reflex. Both reflexes experienced the excitation underlying the voluntary contraction, but only the test H-reflex was subjected to the recurrent inhibition evoked by the conditioning H-reflex discharge. 2. Distinct differences were observed between the modifications of the test reflex and those of the reference H-reflex during both tonic and phasic voluntary contractions. Evidence is presented that these differences were due to changes in the amount of recurrent inhibition elicited by the conditioning discharge. 3. The changes in recurrent inhibition were studied while the subjects performed voluntary tonic contractions of various forces. The weakest contractions were accompanied by a decrease in the size of the test reflex. With greater contraction forces, there was no longer an inhibition of the test reflex, but instead a facilitation which grew continuously with increased contraction forces. The test reflex could eventually exceed the reference H-reflex amplitude at the strongest contractions. This is taken to indicate that the recurrent inhibition following the conditioning discharge was progressively decreasing, as the contraction force increased. 4. During ramp contractions, whatever the contraction velocity, the time courses of the variations of the test and reference H reflexes were almost inverse. Evidence is presented that these differential time courses were due to changes in the amount of recurrent inhibition elicited by the conditioning discharge. 5. The possibility of occlusion in the recurrent pathway ;as considered and it was concluded that the decrease in the recurrent inhibition elicited by the conditioning discharge was essentially due to an inhibitory control (spinal and/or suprasegmental) acting on Renshaw cells. This inhibition of Renshaw cells eventually counteracts the increasing excitatory inputs (resulting from the voluntary motor discharge) which they receive via motor axon collaterals during increasing tonic contractions and throughout ramp contractions. 6. The functional significance of the Renshaw cell inhibition during voluntary contraction is discussed in relation to the inhibition exerted through the recurrent pathway on both motoneurones and Ia inhibitory interneurones. It is suggested that the depression of Renshaw cell activity could play an important role during voluntary movements by favouring reciprocal Ia inhibition.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Hyperekplexia and stiff-man syndrome: abnormal brainstem reflexes suggest a physiological relationship.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Hyperekplexia and the stiff-man syndrome (SMS) are both conditions with exaggerated startle suggesting abnormal brainstem function. Investigation of brainstem reflexes may provide insight into disturbed reflex excitation and inhibition underlying these movement disorders. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Using four-channel EMG, we examined four trigeminal brainstem reflexes (monosynaptic masseter, masseter inhibitory, glabella, and orbicularis oculi blink reflexes) and their spread into pericranial muscles in five patients with familial hyperekplexia (FH), two with acquired hyperekplexia (AH), 10 with SMS, and 15 healthy control subjects. RESULTS: Both FH/AH and SMS patients had abnormal propagation of brainstem reflexes into pericranial muscles. All patients with hyperekplexia showed an abnormal short-latency (15-20 ms) reflex in the trapezius muscle with a characteristic clinical appearance ("head retraction jerk") evoked by tactile or electrical stimulation of the trigeminal nerve, but normal monosynaptic masseter reflexes. Inhibitory brainstem reflexes were attenuated in some FH/AH patients. Four of 10 patients with SMS had similar short-latency reflexes in the neck muscles and frequently showed widespread enhancement of other excitatory reflexes, reflex spasms, and attenuation of inhibitory brainstem reflexes. CONCLUSION: Reflex excitation is exaggerated and inhibition is attenuated in both stiff-man syndrome and familial or acquired hyperekplexia, indicating a physiological relationship. Reflex transmission in the brainstem appears biased towards excitation which may imply dysfunction of inhibitory glycinergic or GABAergic interneurons, or both.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1982

Stretch reflexes of triceps surae in normal man.

In order to learn more about stretch reflex behaviour of triceps surae, normal human subjects sat in a chair with one foot on a platform attached to a torque motor that produced phasic dorsiflexion displacements on the ankle. EMG activity was recorded from triceps surae and responses were obtained for various conditions. When the subjects's foot was relaxed, stretch of triceps surae produced a single EMG component at short-latency which increased in magnitude with increasing velocity of stretch. The response was not altered if the subject was asked to plantarflex or dorsiflex the ankle voluntarily when he felt the perturbation. It was reduced by vibration of the Achilles tendon. If the triceps surae was stretched while the subject plantarflexed his ankle, the short-latency response was followed by one and sometimes two long-latency responses. Like the short-latency reflex when the foot was relaxed, none of these responses was altered by the subject's planned movement after feeling the perturbation. All of the responses were suppressed to a similar degree by vibration. The long-latency reflexes depended on long-duration of stretching and relatively slow acceleration of stretch. The reflexes persisted after anaesthesia to the foot suggesting that muscle afferents were responsible. Interactions between H-reflexes and stretch-reflexes revealed that the afferent volley producing a stretch reflex acted like the afferent volley producing a small H-reflex. Responses at an interval of 30 ms to both an electrical stimulus for an H-reflex and a stretch stimulus were possible if the electrical stimulus produced only a small H-reflex and if the subject had been plantarflexing the ankle. The short-latency reflex when the foot was relaxed or exerting a background force appears to be the monosynaptic, Ia mediated stretch reflex. The physiological properties of the long latency reflexes are similar to those of the short-latency reflex, and they may represent, at least to a certain extent, response of the motor neuron pool to successive Ia bursts.

Adult↗
PubMed1989

The Hoffmann reflex from the flexor pollicis longus of the thumb in left-handed subjects: spinal motor asymmetry and supraspinal facilitation to Cattell's intelligence test.

The spinal motor asymmetry was studied in left-handers. Hand preference was assessed by Geschwind scores (GS), and hand skill by peg moving task, the reflex responses were recorded from the long flexor muscle of the thumb. The H-reflex could be elicited by averaging during cortico-spinal facilitation (voluntary isometric force). The Cattell's Culture Fair Intelligence Test was used to assess the individual differences in mental abilities. H-reflexes were found to be significantly larger on the left than the right side. The amplitude of H-reflex increased linearly with force applied to transducer by the thumb. This facilitation was more pronounced for the left than the right reflexes. Removal of the visual visual input caused facilitation in H-reflex (supraspinal disinhibition). Post-activation potentiation was also observed in H-reflex. There was a positive linear correlation between the degree of left-hand preference (-GSs) and left-hand skill. The correlation for the right-hand skill was not significant. There was a linear correlation between the degree of left-hand preference and the right minus left hand skill. There was an inverse correlation between left-hand skill and H-reflex from left. The correlation for the right side did not reach the 5% significance level. The force-reflex relation did not show any significant change to IQ for the right H-reflex. The left H-reflexes were significantly larger in subjects with high IQ than those with low IQ. The regression line and its slope for the force-reflex relation on the left was found to be higher in subjects with high IQ than those with low IQs. There was a positive linear relationship between IQ and H reflex from left. The correlation for the right side was not as pronounced as that for the left side. The left minus right H reflex was also positive linearly correlated with IQ. These results provide further evidence for the psycho-motor hypothesis (Tan. 1988b) as well as the spinal motor asymmetry to handedness. It was suggested that lateralization of cognitive and motor functions would be essential to create subjects with high psychomotor capacity.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Comparison of linear regression and probit analysis for detecting H-reflex threshold in individuals with and without spinal cord injury.

A major challenge to understanding spinal reflex organization in health and disease is identifying sensitive measures of reflex excitability. The purpose of this study was to determine whether linear regression or probit analysis techniques are more sensitive for detecting H-reflex and M-wave threshold and for identifying differences in H-reflex threshold in individuals with and without spinal cord injury (SCI). Soleus H-reflex recruitment curves were generated in 9 individuals with SCI and 20 able-bodied individuals. H-reflex and M-wave threshold was estimated using three different methods, two that used linear regression of H-reflex peak-to-peak amplitude and one that used probit analysis of quantal H-reflexes. Results indicate that in both groups all three techniques were equally sensitive for detecting H-reflex but not M-wave threshold. When H-reflex threshold was normalized to M-wave threshold, different techniques provided different estimates of H-reflex threshold. However, between-group differences (SCI vs. able-body) in H-reflex and M-wave threshold were not affected by the measurement techniques that were compared in this study. We conclude that these techniques provide equally sensitive estimates of H-reflex but not M-wave threshold in persons with and without SCI. Hence, caution should be used when interpreting normalized and non-normalized values of H-reflex threshold.

Adult↗
PubMed1993

Independent control of reflex and volitional EMG modulation during sinusoidal pursuit tracking in humans.

It is well known that during volitional sinusoidal tracking the long-latency reflex modulates in parallel with the volitional EMG activity. In this study, a series of experiments are reported demonstrating several conditions in which an uncoupling of reflex from volitional activity occurs. The paradigm consists of a visually guided task in which the subject tracked a sinusoid with the wrist. The movement was perturbed by constant torque or controlled velocity perturbations at 45 degrees intervals of the tracking phase. Volitional and reflex-evoked EMG and wrist displacement as functions of the tracking phase were recorded. The relationship of both short-latency (30-60 ms) and longer-latency (60-100 ms) reflex components to the volitional EMG was evaluated. In reflex tracking, the peak reflex amplitude occurs at phases of tracking which correspond to a maximum of wrist joint angular velocity in the direction of homonymous muscle shortening and a minimum of wrist compliance. Uncoupling of the reflex and volitional EMG was observed in three situations. First, during passive movement of the wrist through the sinusoidal tracking cycle perturbation-evoked long-latency stretch reflex peak is modulated as for normal, volitional tracking. However, with passive joint movement the volitional EMG modulation is undetectable. Second, a subset of subjects demonstrate a normally modulated and positioned long-latency reflex with a single peak. However, these subjects have distinct bimodal peaks of volitional EMG. Third, the imposition of an anti-elastic load (positive position feedback) shifts the volitional EMG envelope by as much as 180 degrees along the tracking phase when compared with conventional elastic loading. Yet the long-latency reflex peak remains at its usual phase in the tracking cycle, corresponding to the maximal velocity in the direction of muscle shortening. Furthermore, comparison of the results from elastic and anti-elastic loads reveals a dissociation of short- and long-latency reflex activity, with the short-latency reflex shifting with the volitional EMG envelope. Comparable results were also obtained for controlled velocity perturbations used to control for changes in joint compliance. The uncoupling of the reflex and volitional EMG activity in the present series of experiments points to a flexible relationship between reflex and volitional control systems, altered by peripheral input and external load.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Corticospinal tract transection prevents operantly conditioned H-reflex increase in rats.

Operant conditioning of the H-reflex, the electrical analog of the spinal stretch reflex, in freely moving rats is a relatively simple model for studying long-term supraspinal control over spinal cord function. Motivated by food reward, rats can gradually increase (i.e., up-condition) or decrease (i.e., down-condition) the soleus H-reflex. Earlier work showed that corticospinal tract transection prevents acquisition and maintenance of H-reflex down-conditioning while transection of other major spinal cord tracts does not. This study explores the effects on acquisition of up-conditioning of the right soleus H-reflex of mid-thoracic transection of: the right lateral column (LC, five rats) (containing the rubrospinal, vestibulospinal, and reticulospinal tracts); the entire dorsal column (DC, six rats) [containing the main corticospinal tract (CST) and the dorsal ascending tract (DA)]; the CST alone (five rats); or the DA alone (seven rats). After initial (i.e., control) H-reflex amplitude was determined, the rat was exposed for 50 days to the up-conditioning mode in which reward was given when the H-reflex was above a criterion value. H-reflex amplitude at the end of up-conditioning was compared to initial H-reflex amplitude. An increase > or =20% was defined as successful up-conditioning. In intact rats, H-reflex amplitude at the end of up-conditioning averaged 164% (+/-10%, SE), and 81% were successful. In the present study, LC and DA rats were similar to intact rats in final H-reflex amplitude and percent successful. In contrast, results for DC and CST rats were significantly different from those of intact rats. In the six DC rats, final H-reflex amplitude averaged 105% (+/-3)% of control and none was successful; and in the five CST rats, final H-reflex amplitude averaged 94% (+/-3)% and none was successful. The results indicate that the main CST, located in the dorsal column, is essential for H-reflex up-conditioning as it is for down-conditioning, while the dorsal column ascending tract and the ipsilateral lateral column (containing the main rubrospinal, vestibulospinal, and reticulospinal tracts) do not appear to be essential.

Animals↗
PubMed1986

Tendon vibration-induced inhibition of human and cat triceps surae group I reflexes: evidence of selective Ib afferent fiber activation.

In humans, prolonged vibration of the Achilles tendon produced transient depression or abolition of the soleus H-reflex. Recovery of the electrical reflex threshold to previbration values at a constant lower stimulus intensity usually occurred between 10 to 55 min. Electrical stimulation at higher multiples of the reflex threshold produced reflex EMG amplitudes more immediately comparable to previbration controls. When postvibration H-reflexes were completely abolished, poststimulus averaging of voluntarily maintained tonic EMG activity showed evidence of inhibition at a 46-ms latency in contrast to a 32-ms previbration H-reflex latency. In cat, observation of H-reflexes were rare, but stimulus-evoked changes in EMG activity mimicked the postvibration depression seen in humans. Ventral root postvibration reflexes from triceps surae varied in magnitude but were usually depressed or abolished at 1.0 to 1.2 times the electrical reflex threshold. These responses returned to previbration control amplitudes within 20 to 35 min. Magnitude of depression and time to recovery were dependent on the intensity of the electrical stimulus. In five experiments, depression of postvibration reflex activity and recovery were accompanied by gradual recovery in amplitude of the group I volley to previbration amplitudes. Elevated group Ia axonal electrical thresholds, monitored from seven isolated units, were observed to recover to previbration values in parallel with postvibration reflex recovery to control amplitudes. At electrical stimulus intensities greater than 1.4 times the reflex threshold, postvibration reflex responses were often potentiated, probably reflecting posttetanic potentiation of group Ia pathways activated at their higher axonal thresholds. In two observations, postvibration Ib axonal electrical thresholds did not change. Overall, the findings supported the proposal that postvibration depression of soleus H-reflexes in humans or cats is caused by both disfacilitation and autogenetic inhibition due to withdrawal of Ia afferent activation and increased selectivity of Ib afferent fiber stimulation, respectively.

Achilles Tendon↗
PubMed1981

Organization of the sacral parasympathetic reflex pathways to the urinary bladder and large intestine.

Electrophysiological and horseradish peroxidase (HRP) techniques have provided new insights into the organization of the sacral parasympathetic reflex pathways to the large intestine and urinary bladder. The innervation of the two organs arises from separate groups of sacral preganglionic cells: (1) a dorsal band of cells in laminae V and VI providing an input to the intestine; and (2) a lateral band of cells in lamina VII providing an input to the bladder. These two groups of cells were separated by an interband region containing tract cells and interneurons. Neurons in the interband region received a visceral afferent input and exhibited firing correlated with the activity of intestine and urinary bladder. It seems reasonable therefore to consider the interband region as a third component of the sacral parasympathetic nucleus. Anterograde transport of HRP revealed that visceral afferents from the intestine and bladder projected into the parasympathetic nucleus. Most of the projections were collaterals from afferent axons in Lissauer's tract that passed in lamina I laterally and medially around the dorsal horn. These afferent collaterals were located in close proximity to preganglionic perikarya and dendrites in laminae I, V and VI. The proximity of visceral afferents and efferents in the sacral cord probably reflects the existence of polysynaptic rather than monosynaptic connections since electrophysiological studies revealed that both the defecation and micturition reflexes occurred with very long central delays (45-70 msec). The reflex pathways mediating defecation and micturition in cats with an intact neuraxis were markedly different. Defecation was dependent upon a spinal reflex with unmyelinated (C-fiber) peripheral afferent and efferent limbs. On the other hand, micturition was mediated by a spinobulbospinal pathway with myelinated peripheral afferent (A-fiber) and efferent axons (B-fiber). Transection of the spinal cord at T12-L2 blocked the micturition reflex but only transiently depressed the defecation reflex. In chronic spinal cats the micturition reflex recovered 1-2 weeks after spinalization; however, in these animals bladder-to-bladder micturition reflexes were elicited by C-fiber rather than A-fiber afferents. The C-fiber afferent-evoked reflex was weak or undetectable in animals with an intact neuraxis. Transection of the spinal cord also changed the micturition reflex in neonatal kittens (age 5-28 days). In neonates with an intact neuraxis bladder-to-bladder reflexes occurred via a long latency spinobulbospinal pathway (325-430 msec). The long latency is attributable to the slow conduction velocity in immature unmyelinated peripheral and central axons. In chronic spinal kittens (3-7 days after spinalization) the long latency reflex was abolished and a shorter latency (90-150 msec) bladder reflex was unmasked. The emergence of this spinal pathway may reflect axonal sprouting and the formation of new reflex connections within the sacral parasympathetic nucleus.

Afferent Pathways↗
PubMed1996

Dissociation of the ascending excitatory reflex from peristalsis in the guinea-pig small intestine.

Localized distension of the intestine evokes an ascending excitatory reflex and a descending inhibitory reflex in the circular muscle layer. The sequential activation of these two reflexes is believed to underlie the motor pattern of peristalsis, which is responsible for the co-ordinated propulsion of intestinal contents. In this study we have shown that the initiation of peristalsis involves mechanisms additional to those mediating the ascending excitatory reflex. A short length of guinea-pig small intestine was mounted in a partitioned organ bath so that the lumen was occluded by the partition, but neuronal continuity was maintained. The anal segment was distended by intraluminal fluid infusion to evoke a peristalsis; in the oral segment, an isotonic transducer was used to record circular muscle contractions due to ascending excitatory reflexes. Stepwise distension of the anal segment with 5 microliters increments at 10 s intervals, or with a large, single-step infusion, elicited both the ascending excitatory reflex and peristalsis, when carried out at 3 min intervals. The threshold volume for the ascending excitatory reflex was smaller than the threshold for peristalsis with either incremental or single-step distensions. The ascending excitatory reflex appeared with a shorter delay than peristalsis. Tetrodotoxin (0.6 microM) or hexamethonium (100 microM) added to the oral compartment abolished the ascending excitatory reflex but not peristalsis. These drugs abolished both the ascending excitatory reflex and peristalsis when added to the anal compartment. When stimuli were delivered at 1 min intervals, peristalsis failed completely after the first trial, but the ascending excitatory reflex persisted, at a slightly reduced amplitude. When the anal segment was distended to just-subthreshold volume, electrical field stimulation (0.25-0.5 ms, 1-5 Hz for 1 s), delivered at 3 min intervals, evoked ascending excitatory responses but not peristalsis. Higher frequency stimulation (10 Hz) consistently evoked both peristalsis and the ascending excitatory responses. When trains of electrical stimulation were repeated at 1 min intervals, peristalsis quickly failed, but the ascending excitatory response persisted, although reduced in amplitude. The initiation of peristalsis can be dissociated from the ascending excitatory reflex by its threshold volume, by the duration of distension or the intensity of electrical stimulation required, and by its susceptibility to fatigue with repeated mechanical or electrical stimuli. This suggests that the ascending excitatory reflex may be part of the mechanism underlying the initiation of peristalsis, but that additional mechanisms must also be involved. Peristalsis should not be regarded as a reflex response but rather as an all-or-nothing motor pattern, triggered by mechanical stimulation, similar to other co-ordinated motor patterns in vertebrates and invertebrates.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Modulation of jaw reflexes induced by noxious stimulation to the muscle in anesthetized rats.

Previous studies have shown that jaw reflexes and activity patterns of the jaw muscles were modulated in the presence of jaw muscle pain. However, there is no study comparing the modulatory effects on the jaw reflexes induced by noxious stimulation to the jaw muscle. To clarify this, effects of the application of mustard oil (MO), an inflammatory irritant, into the temporalis (jaw-closing) muscle on (1) jaw-opening reflex evoked by tooth pulp stimulation (TP-evoked JOR) as a nociceptive reflex, (2) jaw-opening reflex evoked by inferior alveolar nerve stimulation as a non-nociceptive reflex and (3) jaw-closing reflex evoked by trigeminal mesencephalic nucleus stimulation as a proprioceptive reflex were investigated in anesthetized rats. The MO application induced suppression of all reflexes, and the effect on the TP-evoked JOR was more prominent than on the other reflexes. To elucidate the involvement of endogenous opioid system for the suppressive effect, a systemic administration of naloxone following the MO application was conducted. The MO-induced suppressive effect on the TP-evoked JOR was reversed by the naloxone administration. The results suggest that noxious stimulation to the jaw muscle modulate jaw reflexes particularly for the nociceptive jaw-opening reflex, and the modulatory effect includes both facilitatory and inhibitory aspects. The results also suggest that pain modulatory systems such as the endogenous opioid system play a crucial role in the suppression of the nociceptive transmissions related to nociceptive reflexes, and in some pathological states, defense reflexes may not be evoked properly.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed1998

Reflexes elicited from cutaneous and mucosal trigeminal afferents in normal human subjects.

It has been shown that in patients in whom the central stump of the hypoglossal nerve has been anastomosed to the peripheral stump of a lesioned facial nerve, supraorbital nerve stimulation can elicit a short-latency reflex (12.5+/-0.6 ms; mean+/-S.D.) in facial muscles similar to the R1 disynaptic blink reflex response, but not followed by an R2 blink reflex component46. Thus in addition to replacing the facial neurons at peripheral synapses, these hypoglossal nerves contribute to a trigemino-hypoglossal reflex. The aim of this work was to study the type of reflex activities which can be elicited in both facial and tongue muscles by electrical stimulation of cutaneous (supraorbital nerve) or mucosal (lingual nerve) trigeminal (V) afferents in normal subjects. The results show that although stimulation of cutaneous V1 afferents elicits the well-known double component (R1-R2) blink reflex response in the orbicularis oculi muscles, it does not produce any detectable reflex response in the genioglossus muscle, even during experimental paradigms designed to facilitate the reflex activity. Conversely, stimulation of mucosal V3 afferents can elicit a single reflex response of the R1 type in the genioglossus muscle but not in the orbicularis oculi muscles, even during experimental paradigms designed to facilitate the reflex activity. These data are discussed in terms of two similar but separate circuits for the R1 responses of cutaneous (blink reflex) and mucosal (tongue reflex) origins. They suggest that in patients with hypoglossal-facial (XII-VII) nerve anastomosis, the short-latency trigemino-'hypoglossal-facial' reflex of the R1 blink reflex type observed in facial muscles following supraorbital nerve stimulation could be due to changes in synaptic effectiveness of the central connectivity within the principal trigeminal nucleus where both cutaneous and mucosal trigeminal afferents project.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Plantar cutaneous input modulates differently spinal reflexes in subjects with intact and injured spinal cord.

STUDY DESIGN: Spinal reflex excitability study in sensory-motor incomplete spinal cord-injured (SCI) and spinal intact subjects. OBJECTIVES: To investigate the effects of plantar cutaneous afferent excitation on the soleus H-reflex and flexion reflex in both subject groups while seated. SETTING: Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago and City University of New York, USA. METHODS: The flexion reflex in SCI subjects was elicited by non-nociceptive stimulation of the sural nerve. In normal subjects, it was also elicited via innocuous medial arch foot stimulation. In both cases, reflex responses were recorded from the ipsilateral tibialis anterior muscle. Soleus H-reflexes were elicited and recorded via conventional methods. Both reflexes were conditioned by plantar cutaneous afferent stimulation at conditioning test intervals ranging from 3 to 90 ms. RESULTS: Excitation of plantar cutaneous afferents resulted in facilitation of the soleus H-reflex and late flexion reflex in SCI subjects. In normal subjects, the soleus H-reflex was depressed while the late flexion reflex was absent. The early flexion reflex was irregularly observed in SCI patients, while in normal subjects a bimodal reflex modulation pattern was observed. CONCLUSION: The effects of plantar cutaneous afferents change following a lesion to the spinal cord leading to exaggerated activity in both flexors and extensors. This suggests impaired modulation of the spinal inhibitory mechanisms involved in the reflex modulation. Our findings should be considered in programs aimed to restore sensorimotor function and promote recovery in these patients. SPONSORSHIP: NIH, NICHD, Grant no. 1R03 HD 043951-01 and PSC CUNY Research Award no. 67051-0036.

Adult↗
PubMed1981

[A classification of light reflexes of the ocular fundus (author's transl)].

The proposed classification resulted from many years of studying the light reflexes and their clinical importance in diseases of the fundus. The generally used term "retinal reflexes" is rejected; it is more appropriate to call them "light reflexes of the ocular fundus". They are divided into normal and pathologic reflexes. Pathologic reflexes are seen in diseases of the fundus. Within the group of normal reflexes it is possible to discern pathologic variants. The macular reflex, for example, may be normal or pathologic. Normal reflexes are the foveolar, the macular, the intramacular, the paramacular, the perimacular, the plane-like reflexes, Frost's points, the vertically linear reflexes, and the light streaks of the vessels. The pathologic reflexes comprise the fan-like, the focal, the peridiscal, the linear, the stationary, the metalloid reflexes, and the crystalline ones. This classification is intended not only for standardizing the nomenclature of the reflexes, but also for facilitating the recognition and differentiation of the numerous reflexes of the ocular fundus.

Diagnosis, Differential↗
PubMed1989

The organization of heterogenic reflexes among muscles crossing the ankle joint in the decerebrate cat.

1. Mechanical actions of heterogenic (intermuscular) reflexes arising from proprioceptors in flexor and extensor ankle muscles were measured in intercollicular and premammillary decerebrate cats. Length inputs were applied to the freed tendons of one of a pair of muscles crossing the ankle joint and resulting changes in force in both muscles were measured. Interactions between autogenic and heterogenic reflexes were studied by applying length changes to both muscles. 2. A consistent asymmetry was observed in the heterogenic inhibition between the single-joint antagonists soleus and tibialis anterior (TA). Inhibition from soleus to TA was weak or absent during the reflex activation of TA. In contrast, a strong heterogenic inhibition was consistently observed from TA to soleus during the activation of soleus by a crossed-extension reflex. The effect of this inhibition in the intact joint is to increase the apparent mechanical stiffness of soleus. 3. Mutual synergism among soleus, medial gastrocnemius (MG) and lateral gastrocnemius (LG) was demonstrated only at low to moderate forces by the observation of excitatory reflexes among them. During a naturally or electrically evoked crossed-extension reflex, however, a unidirectional inhibitory reflex from MG and LG to soleus was observed. This inhibition increased with force in MG or LG. These results suggest that the knee and ankle joints become more tightly linked mechanically at high forces since the stiffness of the biarticular gastrocnemius muscle predominates over that of the uniarticular soleus. 4. Under quiescent conditions (no resting muscle activation), mutual synergism was obeyed among the ankle extensors soleus, LG and MG and also between the pretibial flexors TA and extensor digitorum longus (EDL). Moreover, inhibition was generally observed between a pretibial flexor and an ankle extensor. Departures from this expected pattern of heterogenic reflexes occurred when the muscle groups were activated by crossed-extension and flexion reflexes. Reflexes onto soleus, TA and EDL reversed in sign or increased in magnitude. 5. The observed patterns of reflex connectivity among the ankle flexors and extensors were similar in both intercollicular and premammillary preparations, although changes in reflex strength were sometimes noted in cases where a second, lower transection was performed during the experiment. 6. It is argued from the large magnitudes of certain heterogenic reflexes that the mechanical response properties of muscles crossing the ankle joint in the intact animal are not dominated by autogenic reflexes and intrinsic mechanical properties.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Excitability changes of somatic and viscero-somatic nociceptive reflexes in the decerebrate-spinal rabbit: role of NMDA receptors.

1. Wind-up (frequency-dependent potentiation of the responses of spinal neurones to stimulation of unmyelinated afferents) and other N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor-mediated phenomena have been proposed as key mechanisms underlying persistent pain states. In this study we have compared wind-up in visceral and somatic nociceptive pathways to examine the possible contribution of these mechanisms to visceral pain and hyperalgesia. 2. Experiments were performed on thirteen decerebrate spinalized rabbits. A somato-somatic (SS) reflex (evoked by stimulating skin and muscle afferents from the L2 spinal nerve) and a viscero-somatic (VS) reflex (evoked by stimulating visceral afferents in the splanchnic nerve) were recorded from the L1 spinal nerve. The reflexes consisted of an early (A fibre) and a late (C fibre) component. 3. Conditioning trains of sixteen high intensity electrical stimuli at 1 Hz were applied to the somatic or visceral nerve. These conditioning stimuli did not produce wind-up in the early component of either reflex but evoked powerful wind-up in the late SS reflex (mean percentage of baseline +/- S.E.M., 191 +/- 30%). In contrast wind-up was weak or absent in the late VS reflex (mean percentage of baseline +/- S.E.M., 21 +/- 6%). Conditioning of somatic afferents facilitated both the early and late SS reflex but strongly depressed the early and late VS reflex. Conditioning of visceral afferents had little effect on the early SS reflex, but depressed the early VS reflex and the late components of both reflexes. 4. Intravenous administration (1-10 mg kg-1) of the NMDA receptor antagonist ketamine dose-dependently inhibited the strong wind-up in the late SS reflex and the weak wind-up in the late VS reflex, but also dose-dependently inhibited the early and late components of both baseline reflexes. 5. We conclude that neural mechanisms other than wind-up may underlie the development of visceral pain and hyperalgesia. The present results emphasize the important differences in the processing of somatic and visceral nociceptive input by spinal nociceptive systems and confirm the involvement of NMDA receptors in the spinal processing of nociceptive information.

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