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PubMed2005

Perceived health as related to income, socio-economic status, lifestyle, and social support factors in a middle-aged Japanese.

BACKGROUND: Few studies have examined the association of perceived health with socio-economic status, especially income, and social isolation and support in Japan. The purpose of this study is to clarify the associations among perceived health, lifestyle, and socio-economic status, as well as social isolation and support factors, in middle-aged and elderly Japanese. METHODS: Subjects were 9,650 participants aged 47-77 years who completed a self-administered questionnaire in 2000 in the second survey of a population-based cohort (the Komo-Ise study). The questionnaire included items on sociodemographic and socio-economic factors, social isolation and support, lifestyle, past history of chronic disease and perceived health. Perceived health was dichotomized into excellent or good health and fair or poor health. A logistic regression analysis was used to determine the odds ratios of socio-economic status, social characteristics and lifestyle in relation to self-reported fair or poor health. RESULTS: We found that household income, physical activity, sleeping, smoking habit, and BMI had a strong association with self-reported fair or poor health in middle-aged and elderly Japanese men and women. Male subjects tended to report fair or poor health as household income decreased. The results for women differed in that social isolation and low social support had a stronger association for self-reported fair or poor health than low household income. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicated that perceived health was associated with socio-economic and social characteristics among middle-aged and elderly residents in Japan.

Aged↗
PubMed1996

Income, social stratification, class, and private health insurance: a study of the Baltimore metropolitan area.

Most studies of inequalities and access to health care have used income as the sole indicator of social stratification. Despite the significance of social theory in health insurance research, there are no empirical studies comparing the ability of different models of social stratification to predict health insurance coverage. The aim of this study is to provide a comparative analysis using a variety of theory-driven indicators of social stratification and assess the relative strength of the association between these indicators and private health insurance. Data were collected in a 1993 telephone interview of a random digit dialing sample of the white population in the Baltimore Metropolitan Statistical Area. Indicators of social stratification included employment status, full-time work, education, occupation, industry, household income, firm size, and three types of assets: ownership, organizational, and skill/credential. The association between social stratification and private health insurance was strongest for those having higher household incomes, having attained at least a bachelor's degree, and working in a firm with more than 50 employees, followed by being an owner or manager, and by being employed. The addition of education and firm size improved the prediction of the household income model. The authors conclude that studies of inequalities in health insurance coverage can benefit from the inclusion of theory-driven indicators of social stratification such as human capital, labor market segmentation, and control over productive assets.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Cross-national income inequality: how great is it and what can we learn from it?

In recent years there has been increasing interest in the topic of income distribution in a cross-national context. A secular growth of income inequality has taken place over the past two decades affecting almost every rich nation, matched by the growth in comparable household income inequality data which makes these types of comparisons possible. While clear patterns of disposable income inequality differences are found in both level and trend, we are still a long way from explaining why these differences came about, whether they will continue to grow or stabilize, and what the social consequences of these changes might be.

Australia↗
PubMed1998

Improvements in poverty and income in 1995 tempered by troubling long-term trends.

Census data on poverty and income show short-term improvements in 1995, but the trends were not as positive over the longer term. Poverty rates remained higher than they were at comparable points in previous economic cycles. The incomes of lower- and middle-income households grew in 1995, but only the wealthiest fifth of the population completely recovered from the recession of the early 1990s. Although poverty rates fell and incomes rose for most groups in 1995, Hispanic households did not share in the overall economic gains. In addition, economic improvements were not shared by all geographic areas--the reduction in poverty was concentrated in suburban areas. The current poverty measure does not show the full impact of government benefit programs on poverty, as it does not take into account the effect of non-cash benefits or taxes. An alternative poverty measure gives a much better picture of the effectiveness of government benefit programs in reducing poverty.

Censuses↗
PubMed2000

Primary care, income inequality, and self-rated health in the United States: a mixed-level analysis.

Using the 1996 Community Tracking Study household survey, the authors examined whether income inequality and primary care, measured at the state level, predict individual morbidity as measured by self-rated health status, while adjusting for potentially confounding individual variables. Their results indicate that distributions of income and primary care within states are significantly associated with individuals' self-rated health; that there is a gradient effect of income inequality on self-rated health; and that individuals living in states with a higher ratio of primary care physician to population are more likely to report good health than those living in states with a lower such ratio. From a policy perspective, improvement in individuals' health is likely to require a multi-pronged approach that addresses individual socioeconomic determinants of health, social and economic policies that affect income distribution, and a strengthening of the primary care aspects of health services.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2001

Relations among age, income, and knowledge of investments.

This study examined consumers' interactions with financial advisors in terms of the age and income of the respondents. The respondents were 500 residents of Florida interviewed in a random telephone survey. The dependent variables for the analysis were (1) frequency of communication, (2) knowledge, and (3) confidence in investment. No significant differences were found for frequency of interaction, but differences were identified on both knowledge and confidence in investment. Older respondents had more knowledge about investment than did younger ones, and respondents of higher income had more knowledge and more confidence in their investments than did those of lower or middle income. The results are discussed in terms of immediacy theory. Investment issues would have more immediacy for higher income respondents since they would have more money available for investment. Similarly, immediacy would be higher for older respondents since they would have more time and interest to devote to investment issues.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1997

Association of right-wing authoritarianism and income with wife abuse.

This study investigated the association of right-wing authoritarianism and amount of income with wife abuse, 93 men currently involved in relationships completed Altemeyer's Right Wing Authoritarianism Scale, the Conflict Tactics Scale, and reported their age, yearly income, and spouse's yearly income. Analyses indicates that among lower income males, high right-wing authoritarianism scores were associated with higher scores on the Conflict Tactics Scale.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1997

Social psychological variables in populations contrasted by income and suicide rate: Durkheim revisited.

The ten richest and ten poorest municipalities of Sweden were investigated with respect to national statistics to assess the relationship between suicide incidence, discrete social psychological variables associated with welfare admittance among the elderly, and income of municipality. The relative frequency of suicide was 1.6 times greater for Swedes from the low-income municipalities than for those from the high-income ones. The group of municipalities with the highest suicide rate had a significantly higher proportion of older people in need of municipal social assistance at their homes and also a significantly higher proportion of elderly living in municipality-managed 'service-homes.' The findings replicate earlier investigations and suggest social psychological indicators denoting less favourable economic and social resources are also associated with both an increased suicide rate and a decreased county or municipal income. Some theoretical issues of the socioeconomic and of the external restraint hypotheses of the incidence of suicide, contradicted by the present findings as well as of Durkheim's hypothesis of social control are discussed. Further, we suggest the consideration of negative socioeconomic conditions as a risk factor amid psychiatric clinical assessments of risk for suicidal behaviour.

Adult↗
PubMed1991

Use of a simulation model to evaluate the influence of reproductive performance and management decisions on net income in beef production.

A stochastic dynamic model of reproduction and a deterministic cow-herd economic simulation model were used to evaluate how management decisions and reproductive performance interact to influence net income in a cow-calf operation (1,000 cows) for 1 yr of production. The stochastic model was used to determine herd performance when length of breeding season (45, 70, or 120 d) interacted with three postpartum intervals of anestrus (48, 65, or 90 d) and three conception rates at first service (60, 70, or 80%). Short, moderate, and long postpartum intervals were used to reflect differences in reproductive performance. In addition, replacement heifers were bred beginning either 3 wk ahead of the cow herd or at the same time as the cow herd. Fifty-four simulations were generated. Inputs into the economic model were herd performance, livestock and feed prices, nonfeed costs, and feed requirements for 1 yr of production. Feed requirements were calculated separately for each postpartum interval to reflect three different body condition scores, thin, moderate, and good, to correspond with long, moderate, and short postpartum intervals. Net income was greatest with 70-d breeding seasons when the postpartum interval was short or moderate. When the postpartum interval was long, net income was greatest with 120-d breeding seasons because pregnancy rates, as a result of the long breeding season, were highest and feed costs were lowest for thin cows. Overall, net income was greatest when cows were managed to have postpartum intervals of moderate length. Breeding heifers 3 wk before the cows provided the most economic benefit with long postpartum intervals.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1996

Protein-energy malnutrition in low income elderly Nairobi women.

Nutritional data for two groups of low income elderly women (chi = 64, range 57-74 years) in Nairobi, Kenya were compared. Group I (n = 113), slum dwellers, had an income of < or = $20 Cd per month; Group II (n = 88), poor urban area inhabitants, had an income of < or = $170 Cd per month. Dietary intakes were assessed quantitatively by four 24-h dietary recalls; anthropometric and biochemical data were obtained. Twenty-one women (16% of Group I; 3% of Group II) were classified as having protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) based on abnormal anthropometric measurements or low serum albumin concentration. The malnutrition was marasmic-like; the anthropometric measurements (body weight, triceps, skinfold thickness (TSF), mid-arm muscle circumference (MAMC) of the PEM Group were lower (P < or = 0.05) than those of Groups I and II. The PEM Group was older (chi = 68 years), had lost more teeth, and had more subnormal values than Groups I and II for: serum albumin, hemoglobin, hematocrit, MCHC, MCH, serum transferrin and serum iron. Inferior diets were a contributing factor. Mean energy and protein intakes of the PEM Group were low: 1471 kcal day(-1) (26 kcal kg(-1)) and 42 g day(-1) (0.79 g kg(-1)) respectively. The main protein sources were vegetables (48%) and cereals (36%); only 6 g protein was of high quality. Group II mean protein and energy intakes were greater (P < or = 0.05, P < or = 0.01) than those of the PEM Group and mean dairy product intake was higher (P < or = 0.001). The PEM Group and Group I had low mean energy intakes and an unsatisfactory dietary pattern; they consumed less meat (P < or = 0.01) and less fat (P < or = 0.001) than Group II. For the PEM Group dietary intakes of energy, fat and sugar were significantly correlated with TSF and MAMC; for the PEM Group monthly income was significantly correlated with weight, BMI, TSF and MAMC. Data suggest that elderly women living in Nairobi slums are at high risk of malnutrition, one of the factors contributing to the problem is inadequate food intake.

Aged↗
PubMed2001

Food intake and lipid status of three Vietnamese populations with different incomes.

In order to have basic data for dietary preventive measures against some vascular diseases caused by disorder of lipid metabolism, food intake and lipid status were investigated in three Vietnamese populations with different per capita income levels. Totally, 299 people aged over 18 were involved in this study. Among them, 98 subjects were selected from one commune with low income, 100 and 101 subjects from two urban areas with medium and high income respectively. Food intake was assessed by 24-h recall method and lipid status was evaluated by measuring serum concentration of triglyceride, total cholesterol and its subfractions. The results showed that food consumption, dietary habits and lipid status varied with income levels. In general, diet was still unbalanced in all three groups, and low in fat and protein. In the rural, fat and protein intakes were lower than in the urban. The high prevalence of low serum cholesterol was observed in all three groups, the highest in the rural (45.3%) and the lowest in the urban (11.2%). On the contrary, the prevalence of high serum cholesterol was the lowest in the rural (2%) and the highest in the urban (16%). From these data, it is suggested that the majority of the Vietnamese might be vulnerable to some vascular diseases such as stroke if the situation of low fat intake and low serum cholesterol is not a problem of concern.

Adult↗
PubMed1992

Measuring the relationship between income and NHEs (national health expenditures).

This article uses recently published time series data for the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development countries to estimate income elasticities for health care expenditures. Several different models and alternative specifications are examined to determine the sensitivity and robustness of the estimated relationships. Income is the dominant-determinant of health care spending and longrun income elasticity for health care is significantly greater than unity. This implies that health care is a luxury good, and expenditures will tend to rise with the level of national income. There is little evidence that the degree of public finance reduces the level of health care expenditures.

Data Collection↗
PubMed1999

The impact of wives' earnings on income inequality: issues and estimates.

We estimate the extent to which rising family income inequality can be explained by changes in the earnings of married women. We develop a decomposition equation that separates single persons from married couples (decomposition by population group) and, for married couples, distinguishes the impact of wives' earnings from other sources of income (decomposition by income source). Despite the rising correlation between husbands' and wives' earnings, changes in wives' earnings do not explain a substantial portion of the increase in family income inequality. Our results contradict those of some previous analyses. The inconsistency of recent estimates can be traced to the use of a variety of conceptually different approaches in the previous literature. We clarify these approaches by explicitly distinguishing the conceptual issues, analyzing the empirical components, and providing comprehensive estimates.

Family Characteristics↗
PubMed2000

Psychological factors influencing cardiovascular risk reduction behavior in low and middle income African-American women.

Cardiovascular disease is the number one cause of death for women, especially, African-American women in the United States. In fact, it is reported that each year, 39% of all deaths in women are from coronary heart disease (CHD). Further, 1 out of every 5 women in the United States have some form of cardiovascular disease (CVD). In 1998, 500,037 women died from CVD. In 1997, the morality for CHD for females was 236,468; representing 491 of all deaths for this disease. Among women, African-American women have a death rate for CHD almost four times higher than their White counterparts. Several factors influence the risks for African-American women. African-American women are more likely to be obese and to participate in lower rates of cardiovascular risk reduction behavior (diet control, exercise, weight management) than Caucasian women. Few studies explore psychological factors influencing African-American women's participation rates in cardiovascular risk reduction behavior. The purpose of this study was to explore the role of psychological factors (self-concept, self-efficacy to diet and exercise, and stress) on cardiovascular risk reduction behavior in low and middle-income African-American women. A questionnaire measuring self-concept, self-efficacy to diet and exercise, and stress was self-administered by middle-income women and investigator administered to low-income women. Findings revealed that self-efficacy to diet and exercise were positively correlated with cardiovascular risk reduction behavior in both groups. Additionally, middle-income women with higher levels of self-concept and lower body mass index were more likely to participate in the risk reduction behavior. Findings have implications for tailoring cardiovascular risk reduction interventions to African-American women of varying socioeconomic status (SES).

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Family processes as pathways from income to young children's development.

A variety of family processes have been hypothesized to mediate associations between income and young children's development. Maternal emotional distress, parental authoritative and authoritarian behavior (videotaped mother-child interactions), and provision of cognitively stimulating activities (Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment [HOME] scales) were examined as possible mediators in a sample of 493 White and African American low-birth-weight premature infants who were followed from birth through age 5. Cognitive ability was assessed by standardized test, and child behavior problems by maternal report, when the children were 3 and 5 years of age. As expected, family income was associated with child outcomes. The provision of stimulating experiences in the home mediated the relation between family income and both children's outcomes; maternal emotional distress and parenting practices mediated the relation between income and children's behavior problems.

Chi-Square Distribution↗
PubMed1980

Probabilistic income-maximizing behavior in regional migration: an empirical test.

"This paper provides an empirical test of the hypothesis that migrants consider income risk in their evaluation of the returns to migration in that higher levels of income risk for a given region reduce the rate of net migration into that region." Theoretical approaches to the incorporation of income risk in migration models are first considered, and alternative approaches are then tested using data on white and nonwhite net migration in the United States between 1960 and 1970. The results indicate support for the hypothesis that the extent of net migration is inversely affected by income risk.

Americas↗
PubMed1989

[Shadow price and income concepts in the economic theory of fertility].

"This paper deals with endogenous shadow prices and therefore non-linear budget constraints with endogenous income. In contrast to the quantity-quality-models in the economic theory of fertility, here, these main features result from assumptions concerning home production technology. The distinction between observable and 'true' change in income is crucial. Only the latter is relevant for microeconomic decision calculus. The concept of superiority is related to true changes in income, in the case of children as well. Nonetheless the presented model is able to explain negative observable income effects with respect to the number of children." (SUMMARY IN ENG)

Demography↗
PubMed1992

AIDS prevalence by income group in Philadelphia.

We sought to track recent changes in AIDS incidence and prevalence in the city of Philadelphia (PA, U.S.A.) using morbidity and mortality data reported to the health department. We stratified the data by the mean per capita income in census tracts where people with AIDS resided. Estimates made without adjustment for the time lag between events and their entry into the database undercount both recent AIDS diagnoses and recent AIDS deaths. Therefore, we used a previously published method to adjust for the lag in reporting diagnoses and developed a method to adjust for the lag in reporting deaths. We calculated prevalent cases as the difference between cumulative cases and cumulative deaths. Between 1988 and 1990, annual AIDS incidence per 100,000 Philadelphia residents increased by 21% (from 25.9 to 31.4) and AIDS prevalence per 100,000 population increased by 62% (from 30.2 to 48.8). AIDS prevalence increased 113% (from 29.8 to 63.6) in low-income tracts, 88% (from 27.8 to 52.3) in middle-income tracts, and 14% (from 32.5 to 37.2) in high-income tracts. The 62% increase in AIDS prevalence and the shift toward people in poorer neighborhoods imply a need for public funding for AIDS care that is far larger than would be suggested by the general 21% increase in AIDS incidence over the same period.

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome↗