Facial expression of emotion in human frontal and temporal lobe epileptic seizures.
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Social and emotional functions in facial expression and communication: the readout hypothesis.
Fridlund (Fridlund, A.J. (1991). Biological Psychology, 32, 3-100) has argued that facial displays are specific to intent and context, rather than being readouts of underlying motivational-emotional states. This paper responds that these views are not incompatible, and that subjective emotional experience functions in part to enhance the learned control of emotional expression and communication. It summarizes the readout position, answers Fridlund's criticisms identifying it with the different notion of "spillover," and contends that the expressive readout functions in spontaneous communication. Fridlund's assertions that the readout is a reflex-like process, and that the readout view has ignored the receiver's coevolutionary role in communication, are addressed. Evidence supporting the readout view is presented, including studies suggesting that there are hierarchically organized neurochemical systems underlying subjective, expressive, and peripheral physiological responses. Such primary motivational-emotional systems (primes) are basic to the readout theory.
Animals↗
Interaction of gaze direction and facial expressions processing: ERP study.
Event related potentials (ERPs) were recorded from 11 subjects watching photographs of angry and happy faces with different gaze directions. ERPs to right averted gaze differed from those to straight and left averted gaze at 85 and 460 ms whereas ERPs to happy and angry expressions differed at 115, 330 and 380 ms. We suggest that short-latency effects, maximal over occipital cortex, reflect the involvement of visual cortex in the early analysis of socially-relevant stimuli. Interaction of gaze and expressions was reflected in ERPs at 270 - 450 ms. We conclude that gaze and emotional expressions are analyzed in parallel at the early stages of visual processing. The interaction of these two processing streams starts no earlier than at 270 ms.
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Subcortical and ventral prefrontal cortical neural responses to facial expressions distinguish patients with bipolar disorder and major depression.
BACKGROUND: Bipolar disorder (BD) is characterised by abnormalities in mood and emotional processing, but the neural correlates of these, their relationship to depressive symptoms, and the similarities with deficits in major depressive disorder (MDD) remain unclear. We compared responses within subcortical and prefrontal cortical regions to emotionally salient material in patients with BP and MDD using functional magnetic resonance imaging. METHODS: We measured neural responses to mild and intense expressions of fear, happiness, and sadness in euthymic and depressed BD patients, healthy control subjects, and depressed MDD patients. RESULTS: Bipolar disorder patients demonstrated increased subcortical (ventral striatal, thalamic, hippocampal) and ventral prefrontal cortical responses particularly to mild and intense fear, mild happy, and mild sad expressions. Healthy control subjects demonstrated increased subcortical responses to intense happy and mild fear, and increased dorsal prefrontal cortical responses to intense sad expressions. Overall, MDD patients showed diminished neural responses to all emotional expressions except mild sadness. Depression severity correlated positively with hippocampal response to mild sadness in both patient groups. CONCLUSIONS: Compared with healthy controls and MDD patients, BD patients demonstrated increased subcortical and ventral prefrontal cortical responses to both positive and negative emotional expressions.
Adult↗
Components and recognition of facial expression in the communication of emotion by actors.
This article addresses the issue of the communication of emotion by actors. In Study 1, the facial behavior of 6 actors portraying emotions as felt or unfelt were analyzed with the Facial Action Coding System. Results indicated that the portrayals of felt emotions were closer to the expression of genuine emotion than the portrayals of unfelt emotions for 3 of the 6 emotions under investigation. Study 2 examined the decoding of actors' portrayals from facial behavior. Decoders were found to be very accurate in recognizing the emotional category but not in judging the encoding condition.
Adolescent↗
Developmental changes in facial expressions of emotions in the strange situation during the second year of life.
Infants' expressions of discrete emotions were coded during the more stressful episodes (4 through 8) of the Strange Situation at 13 and 18 months. The data showed a significant decrease in full-face expressions (more complex configurations of movements) and a significant increase in component expressions (simpler and more constrained patterns of movements). The authors interpreted this trend as a developmental change toward more regulated and less intense emotions. Consistent with this view, the aggregate index of infants' full-face negative emotion expressions, interpreted as reflecting relatively unregulated intense emotions, correlated significantly with maternal ratings of difficult temperament. The authors discuss alternative interpretations of the findings in terms of changes in reactivity/arousability and the emerging capacity for self-regulation.
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Recognition of emotion from facial expression in mental handicap.
When mildly and severely mentally retarded people saw photographs showing expressions of basic emotions their overall performance was found to be correlated with intelligence. Certain specific patterns of confusion were determined, clinically the most significant being an inability to cope with high intensity emotions.
Adult↗
Effects of facial identity, facial expression, and subject's sex on laterality in monkeys.
Previously we showed that rhesus monkeys processed discriminations of monkey faces significantly better with the right hemisphere of the brain than with the left. The overall effects of the type of discrimination, i.e. facial identity or expression, and the sex of the subject on laterality are examined here for seven phases of this series of experiments. Both types of discrimination produced a right hemispheric advantage, with slightly greater laterality for expression, but generally the laterality did not differ significantly for the two types. Female monkeys demonstrated more consistent and significant right hemispheric laterality than did males. Furthermore, female monkeys tended to be more lateralised for discriminations of expression, whereas males were about equally lateralised for both types. Thus, in these experiments the overall right hemispheric advantage for facial discriminations in monkeys reflects the contribution of the female subjects, especially when discriminating expression, more than that of the males.
Journal Article↗
Annotation: Development of facial expression recognition from childhood to adolescence: behavioural and neurological perspectives.
BACKGROUND: Intact emotion processing is critical for normal emotional development. Recent advances in neuroimaging have facilitated the examination of brain development, and have allowed for the exploration of the relationships between the development of emotion processing abilities, and that of associated neural systems. METHODS: A literature review was performed of published studies examining the development of emotion expression recognition in normal children and psychiatric populations, and of the development of neural systems important for emotion processing. RESULTS: Few studies have explored the development of emotion expression recognition throughout childhood and adolescence. Behavioural studies suggest continued development throughout childhood and adolescence (reflected by accuracy scores and speed of processing), which varies according to the category of emotion displayed. Factors such as sex, socio-economic status, and verbal ability may also affect this development. Functional neuroimaging studies in adults highlight the role of the amygdala in emotion processing. Results of the few neuroimaging studies in children have focused on the role of the amygdala in the recognition of fearful expressions. Although results are inconsistent, they provide evidence throughout childhood and adolescence for the continued development of and sex differences in amygdalar function in response to fearful expressions. Studies exploring emotion expression recognition in psychiatric populations of children and adolescents suggest deficits that are specific to the type of disorder and to the emotion displayed. CONCLUSIONS: Results from behavioural and neuroimaging studies indicate continued development of emotion expression recognition and neural regions important for this process throughout childhood and adolescence. Methodological inconsistencies and disparate findings make any conclusion difficult, however. Further studies are required examining the relationship between the development of emotion expression recognition and that of underlying neural systems, in particular subcortical and prefrontal cortical structures. These will inform understanding of the neural bases of normal and abnormal emotional development, and aid the development of earlier interventions for children and adolescents with psychiatric disorders.
Adolescent↗
Gender differences in judgments of multiple emotions from facial expressions.
The authors tested gender differences in emotion judgments by utilizing a new judgment task (Studies 1 and 2) and presenting stimuli at the edge of conscious awareness (Study 2). Women were more accurate than men even under conditions of minimal stimulus information. Women's ratings were more variable across scales, and they rated correct target emotions higher than did men.
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Amygdalar activation associated with positive and negative facial expressions.
Most theories of amygdalar function have underscored its role in fear. One broader theory suggests that neuronal activation of the amygdala in response to fear-related stimuli represents only a portion of its more widespread role in modulating an organism's vigilance level. To further explore this theory, the amygdalar response to happy, sad, angry, fearful, and neutral faces in 17 subjects was characterized using 3 T fMRI. Utilizing a random effects model and hypothesis-driven analytic strategy, it was observed that each of the four emotional faces was associated with reliable bilateral activation of the amygdala compared with neutral. These findings suggest a broader role for the amygdala in modulating the vigilance level during the perception of several negative and positive facial emotions.
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Unattended facial expressions asymmetrically bias the concurrent processing of nonemotional information.
Planned and reflexive behaviors often occur in the presence of emotional stimuli and within the context of an individual's acute emotional state. Therefore, determining the manner in which emotion and attention interact is an important step toward understanding how we function in the real world. Participants in the current investigation viewed centrally displayed, task-irrelevant, face distractors (angry, neutral, happy) while performing a lateralized go/no-go continuous performance task. Lateralized go targets and no-go lures that did not spatially overlap with the faces were employed to differentially probe processing in the left (LH) and right (RH) cerebral hemispheres. There was a significant interaction between expression and hemisphere, with an overall pattern such that angry distractors were associated with relatively more RH inhibitory errors than neutral or happy distractors and happy distractors with relatively more LH inhibitory errors than angry or neutral distractors. Simple effects analyses confirmed that angry faces differentially interfered with RH relative to LH inhibition and with inhibition in the RH relative to happy faces. A significant three-way interaction further revealed that state anxiety moderated relations between emotional expression and hemisphere. Under conditions of low cognitive load, more intense anxiety was associated with relatively greater RH than LH impairment in the presence of both happy and threatening distractors. By contrast, under high load, only angry distractors produced greater RH than LH interference as a function of anxiety.
Adolescent↗
Patterns of perceptual asymmetry in processing facial expression.
The paper reports four visual half-field experiments on the recognition of schematic faces whose emotional expression varied. Experiments I and II tested accuracy of recognition in a match-to-sample task. The results confirmed an overall left visual-field superiority in face recognition, but an analysis of a subset of the stimuli indicated that the direction and magnitude of the perceptual asymmetry depend upon the sign of the emotional expression. A replot of the results based on direct scaling of emotional expression (Experiment III) revealed an asymmetry gradient shifting from a left visual-field superiority for faces displaying hostile, aggressive emotions. When the stimuli are rotated 180 degrees the faces lose their emotional expression and no visual half-field asymmetry in recognition was observed in this condition (Experiment IV). It is concluded that emotional signals are processed independently of pattern, object and face recognition, and that the relative contribution of the left and right cerebral hemispheres to processing of emotional signals varies according to the type of emotion displayed.
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[Several features of facial expression and its perception in schizophrenic patients and the problem of emotional reference].
The author discusses some general problems of emotions and expression. It is admitted, in particular, that a consideration of expression as a paralanguage may lead (similar to correlation of language and thinking) to a conception of mutually conditioned emotions and expression. It is assumed that a differentiated concept of emotional structure including besides emotional reactions and states, emotional relations may afford a better understanding of expressional pathology. The emotional relations as an expressional phenomena is specially stressed. In preliminary experiments based on scaled evaluation of mimics it was possible to distinguish by experts the mimics of normals and schizophrenic patients. The latter had a significant increase in the maximally positive and negative marks.
Emotions↗
[Recognition of intonation and facial expression of emotions by patients with organic lesions of the right and left hemispheres].
The paper deals with comparative efficiency of emotional state recognition by intonational and mimic information in healthy and ill subjects with organic lesion of one hemisphere. In particular, it is shown, that the analysis of the verbalized mimic information is better in the healthy left hemisphere and of nonverbalized--in the right one; pathology of the right hemisphere significantly worsens the solving of tasks, connected with recognition of intonational information in comparison with a mimic one.
Auditory Perception↗
[Facial Expression and gestures in the murals of the church in Bojana].
The study is an attempt to analyse mimicry and gestures in six of the portraits of Christ and in another four figures of laymen in the mural paintings of the church in Bojana which were created by an unknown artist called Master of Bojana in 1259. Besides his excellent performances as an innovator in this art, we are also surprised by his talent to express the various mental conditions and interrelations of the individual figures by the play of their features and their gestures. The portraits of laymen completely convey the mental characteristics of these people while the figures of Christ may be considered as examples of high human values and virtues. This characteristic feature of the works of the Master of Bojana makes his artistic creation stand out in a more plastic and qualitative manner, permits a deeper insight into his master works and explains their irresistible effect on the viewers.
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[Recognition of emotions in facial expression of visual half-field images by schizophrenic and depressed patients].
Twenty schizophrenics, 20 depressives, and 20 normal controls were asked to identify positive and negative emotional expressions of faces tachistoscopically presented to the left and/or right visual hemifields. Results replicated the frequently cited recognition advantage for emotional stimuli presented in the left visual hemifield (right hemispheric processing). A significant reduction in decoding advantage was observed in both patient groups, which could be explained in terms of an interhemispheric disconnection syndrome in schizophrenics and depressives. Bilateral findings in particular tend to support this hypothesis, since they revealed that both cerebral hemispheres processed contrary information simultaneously.
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Children's understanding of facial expression of emotion: III. Adults' categorical and dimensional responses to children's drawings.
49 adult subjects responded to 37 children's drawings of six emotions (happy, sad, angry, afraid, surprised, and disgusted) by naming the emotion depicted and by identifying the pleasantness and arousal status of each drawing. Various analyses indicated that assignment to categories could be predicted on the basis of ratings of pleasantness and arousal (the two key dimensions of a bipolar affect space). Data support the contention that emotional responses should not be assessed solely on the basis of literal accuracy but should rather be described in terms of their location in affect space.
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