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At least 703 records · Page 39Linked to original sources
PubMed2003

Intramuscular bleeding of the tongue in the victims of house fire.

Intramuscular bleeding of the tongue is frequently observed in autopsy cases of house fire victims. The meaning of this finding has not yet been fully discussed. We examined 69 autopsy cases of house fire victims and investigated several factors contributing to intramuscular bleeding of the tongue. Victims comprised 45 males and 24 females, ranging in age from 1 to 95 years old. Sixty-four cases (93%) involved severely charred bodies, while the remaining five bodies displayed slight burns. Factors studied were age, sex, posture of the body at the scene of the fire, degree of burn injury and carboxyhemoglobin (CO-Hb) levels in blood. CO-Hb level proved to be the only factor relevant to intramuscular bleeding of the tongue. Of 69 autopsy cases, 23 (33%) demonstrated intramuscular bleeding of the tongue (13 cases of slight bleeding, ten cases of severe bleeding). Low concentrations of CO-Hb (</=30%) were observed in six of ten cases (60%) with severe intramuscular bleeding. Of 46 cases without intramuscular bleeding, ten (22%) displayed low concentrations of CO-Hb. These results may indicate that severe burn injuries occurring before inhaling air containing high levels of carbon monoxide represent the cause of intramuscular bleeding of the tongue in fire victims. The burned regions of the body in the early stage of the fire process were unclear due to severe charring in most victims. However, asphyxiation due to neck compression is known to often induce intramuscular bleeding of the tongue. Lack of skin elasticity following burns, particularly in the neck, might act in a similar manner to asphyxial neck compression. In conclusion, intramuscular bleeding of the tongue in fire victims may occur as a vital reaction to burns.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Assessing forest fire as a potential PCDD/F source in Queensland, Australia.

Forest fires are suggested as a potential and significant source of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), even though no studies to date provide sufficient evidence to confirm forest fires as a source of PCDD/Fs. Recent investigations in Queensland, Australia have identified a widespread contamination of PCDDs (in particular OCDD) in soils and sediments in the coastal region from an unknown source of PCDD/Fs. Queensland is predominately rural; it has few known anthropogenic sources of PCDD/Fs, whereas forest fires are a frequent occurrence. This study was conducted to assess forest fires as a potential source of the unknown PCDD/F contamination in Queensland. A combustion experiment was designed to assess the overall mass of PCDD/Fs before and after a simulated forest fire. The results from this study did not identify an increase in sigmaPCDD/Fs or OCDD after the combustion process. However, specific non-2,3,7,8 substituted lower chlorinated PCDD/Fs were elevated after the combustion process, suggesting formation from a precursor. The results from this study indicate that forest fires are unlikely to be the source of the unknown PCDD contamination in Queensland, rather they are a key mechanism for the redistribution of PCDD/Fs from existing sources and precursors.

Benzofurans↗
PubMed2000

Fire deaths in children in South Australia from 1989 to 1998.

A study was undertaken of childhood deaths caused by fires in South Australia over a 10-year period from 1989 to 1998. A total of 23 deaths of children occurred with an age range of 2 months to 16 years (mean 5 years 10 months; M:F = 13:10). Fourteen deaths were associated with house fires, four with fires in cars and four were miscellaneous or unspecified. While house fire deaths remained the major cause of childhood fire deaths (65%), deaths in car fires accounted for a significant proportion of cases (17%). Although the numbers are small, cars represented a specific danger because of their confined space with highly flammable interiors, lockable doors, and built in non-childproof lighters. Cars should not be regarded as suitable places to leave young children, or for children to play in unsupervised.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

Necessity of fire department response to the scene of motor vehicle crashes.

The purpose of this study was to identify how often fire department (FD) response to the scene of motor vehicle crashes (MVCs) is necessary for rescue and fire suppression. A retrospective review of MVCs between January 1, 1997 and December 13, 2000 occurring in a suburban municipality (population 79,000, 13 FDs) was conducted. Data abstracted included the total number of reported MVCs, MVCs with personal injury (PIAC), MVCs to which the FD responded, MVCs requiring any extrication, MVCs requiring extensive extrication, and MVCs requiring fire suppression. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics. A total of 14,450 MVCs occurred during the study period. Two thousand ninety-five (14.5%) resulted in personal injury. The FD responded to 198 MVCs (9.5% of PIAC). Twenty-four (1.1% of PIAC) required simple door release. Fourteen (0.7% of PIAC) required more extensive extrication. No MVC required fire suppression. During this study period, specialized equipment and personnel were rarely needed for patient extrication from MVCs in this municipality. At no time was fire suppression required. Routine FD response to MVCs for purposes of extrication or fire suppression is not warranted in this emergency response system. A prospective study, including a cost analysis, should be undertaken to further clarify the role of FD response to MVCs.

Accidents, Traffic↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Carbon monoxide: a hazard to fire fighters.

Carbon monoxide levels were measured in twenty-five fires in the city of Los Angeles to obtain information about fire fighters exposure to carbon monoxide. Levels as high as 3,000 ppm were observed for some fires. In general, when carbon monoxide levels were significantly elevated (greater than 100 ppm) the smoke was quite heavy and noxious, but in some cases the smoke was heavy and carbon monoxide levels were minimal. In two-story structures, the highest concentrations of carbon monoxide were found on the second-floor level and were usually still elevated after the fire had been "knocked down" but was still smoldering. These data show that fire fighters are exposed to levels of carbon monoxide which could be a serious health hazard and may be related to the high incidence of heart disease in fire fighters.

Air Pollutants↗
PubMed2004

Physiological responses of fire-fighter instructors during training exercises.

Thirteen male instructors were monitored during a total of 44 live fire training exercises (ambient temperature 74+/-42 degrees C). Exposure time during the 'Hot Fire' (HF), 'Fire Behaviour' and 'Fire Attack' exercises was 33.0+/-7.9 min (n=30); 26.3+/-5.5 min (n=6); and 7.3+/-2.6 min (n=8) respectively. At the end of the exercises, mean core temperature (t(core)) was 38.5+/-0.9 degrees C (n=32), however eight instructors had a t(core) above 39 degrees C. The mean maximum temperature under the fire hood was 41.2+/-4.6 degrees C (n=40). Mean maximum heart rate (HR) was 138+/-26 bpm (n=34) however, in five exercises, HR exceeded 90% of the instructors' HR reserve. Mean fluid deficit was 0.62+/-0.6 l (n=30) at the end of the HF exercises, the maximum being 2.54 l. Four instructors doubted their ability to perform a rescue at the end of the exercise. The energy cost of performing simulated rescues of a 50 kg dummy in the cool was investigated in a pilot study. Mean HR during the rescues was 79+/-7% of the instructors' HR reserve and it was estimated that this could increase t(core) by 0.4 to 0.6 degrees C. The physiological responses to the fire-fighting exercises varied considerably and reflected the differences in work performed and external heat load. The results obtained from some individuals give cause for concern, and signs of heat strain were seen in at least two individuals.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

A model of survivors' psychological responses following a residential fire.

Residential fires result in loss of life, property, and displacement from one's neighborhood. It would be expected that grief experienced in the aftermath of residential fires has a significant impact on survivor's recovery and reintegration into the community. Although there is some research on psychological responses to community-wide fires and large scale disasters, little is known about such responses among survivors of home fires that occur episodically. Appropriate interventions cannot be developed until more is learned about variables influencing survivors' psychological response to a residential fire. A theoretical model of survivors' psychological response post-fire is proposed.

Disasters↗
PubMed2002

Determination of firefighter exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and benzene during fire fighting using measurement of biological indicators.

In accomplishing their duties, firefighters are potentially exposed to a vast array of toxic combustion and pyrolysis products such as benzene, carbon monoxide, acrolein, nitrogen dioxide, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Exposure to PAH and benzene was assessed by means of urinary measurements of 1-hydroxypyrene and t,t-muconic acid, respectively. All urine samples were collected from 43 firefighters during a period extending for 20 h following the end of exposure during a fire. A control sample was also obtained from each participant after at least four days without involvement in fire fighting activities. Only one control 1-hydroxypyrene measurement exceeded the value of 0.32 micromol/mol creatinine considered as the 95th percentile of a normal reference population in this study. Following exposure, 38 percent of the maximum values of all samples collected from each firefighter exceeded this reference value. The highest single value observed in this study was 3.6 micromol/mol creatinine. None of the control samples had a t,t-muconic acid concentration above the limit of detection. A large number (81%) of post-fire samples also had nonquantifiable concentrations of this metabolite. Among 43 firefighters in this study, 17 had measurable excretion of this metabolite in any of the urine samples after fire fighting and, of the latter group, only 6 had t,t-muconic acid concentrations exceeding 1.1 mmol/mol creatinine, a value considered to correspond to a benzene-air concentration of approximately 1 ppm according to the literature. There is clear evidence that fire fighting activities are associated with exposure to PAH above environmental background, as assessed by 1-hydroxypyrene measurements, despite the use of protective equipment. However, in comparison with observations made in other cohorts of industrial workers with known polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons exposure, firefighters' exposure in this study was low. Similarly, based on t,t-muconic acid determinations, exposure to benzene was rather low in this study. For both contaminants, observation of low exposure could be due to either low concentrations of the contaminant during fire fighting or to the efficiency of protective equipment worn.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Response interval comparison between urban fire departments and ambulance services.

OBJECTIVE: To measure the response intervals of fire departments compared with ambulance services in three urban centers to determine whether defibrillators should be added to fire vehicles. METHODS: A prospective sample of 1,882 code 4 (life-threatening) tiered calls were collected over a six-month period from March 1, 1994, to August 31, 1994. A matched pairs experimental design compared the response interval of the fire department with that of the ambulance service for each call. This emergency medical services (EMS) system encompasses three urban centers with populations of 80,000, 95,000, and 170,000. RESULTS: In two of three of the urban centers, the fire department arrived on scene more than a minute sooner than the ambulance service: Cambridge (n = 571, mean = 2.22 min, p < 0.0001); Kitchener (n = 1,011, mean = 1.24 min, p < 0.003); and Waterloo (n = 300, mean = 0.69 min, p < 0.98). CONCLUSIONS: The shorter response interval of fire departments suggests placing defibrillators on fire response vehicles in an effort to decrease the time to defibrillation for cardiac arrest victims in this EMS system.

Ambulances↗
PubMed2001

Characterization of volatile organic compounds in smoke at municipal structural fires.

The objective of this study was to characterize volatile organic compounds (VOCs) found at municipal structural fires in order to identify sources of long-term health risks to firefighters, which may be contributing factors in heart disease and cancer. Firefighters collected air into evacuated Summa canisters inside burning buildings at nine municipal structural fires under conditions where they judged that at least some firefighters might remove their self-contained breathing apparatus masks. Volatile organic compounds were identified and quantified for 144 target compounds using cryogenic preconcentration and gas chromatography/mass spectral detection (GC/MSD) methodology operating in selected ion monitoring mode. Samples were also analyzed in SCAN mode and examined for the appearance of substances that were not present in the instrument standard calibration mixture. The spectra of municipal structural fires were surprisingly similar and remarkable for their simplicity, which was largely due to the dominating presence of benzene along with toluene and naphthalene. Propene and 1,3-butadiene were found in all of the fires, and styrene and other alkyl-substituted benzene compounds were frequently identified. Similar "fingerprints" of the same 14 substances (propene, benzene, xylenes, 1-butene/2-methylpropene, toluene, propane, 1,2-butadiene, 2-methylbutane, ethylbenzene, naphthalene, styrene, cyclopentene, 1-methylcyclopentene, isopropylbenzene) previously identified at experimental fires burning various solid combustible materials were also found at municipal structural fires, accounting for 76.8% of the total VOCs measured. Statistically significant positive correlations were found between increasing levels of benzene and levels of propene, the xylenes, toluene, 1-butene/2-methylpropene, 1,3-butadiene, and naphthalene. Given the toxicity/carcinogenicity of those VOCs that were found in the highest concentrations, particularly benzene, 1,3-butadiene, and styrene, further investigation of VOC exposures of firefighters is warranted. Benzene, or its metabolic product s-phenylmercapturic acid in urine, was identified as a suitable chemical marker for firefighter exposure to combustion products.

Alkenes↗
PubMed2001

Characterization of volatile organic compounds in smoke at experimental fires.

Significant associations between firefighting and cancer have been reported; however, studies finding toxic products of combustion at municipal fires have been limited by (1) technical difficulties encountered at the scene of working fires, (2) the lack of a coherent sampling strategy, and (3) the absence of verified sampling methods. The objective of the present study was to characterize the presence of volatile organic compound (VOC) combustion products in fire smoke. Air samples from experimental fires burning various materials commonly found at structural fires were collected into evacuated Summa canisters and analyzed for 144 target VOCs using cryogenic preconcentration and gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy (GC/MSD) methodology. The resulting chromatograms were characterized by a small number of predominant peaks, with 14 substances (propene, benzene, xylenes, 1-butene/2-methylpropene, toluene, propane, 1,2-butadiene, 2-methylbutane, ethylbenzene, naphthalene, styrene, cyclopentene, 1-methylcyclopentene, isopropylbenzene) being found in proportionately higher concentrations in all experimental fires and accounting for 65% (SD = +/-12%) by mass of total measured VOCs. Benzene, toluene, 1,3-butadiene, naphthalene, and styrene were found at higher concentrations than most other VOCs and increased with the time of combustion together with increasing levels of carbon monoxide. Benzene was found in the highest concentrations, with peak levels ranging from 0.6 ppm to 65 ppm, while the levels of 1,3-butadiene, styrene, and naphthalene peaked at 0.1, 0.4, and 3 ppm, respectively. This study revealed that there were no new or novel, toxic nonpolar VOCs resulting from the burning of common building materials. This is important in view of the studies that have found associations between firefighting and various forms of cancer.

Beds↗
PubMed1992

Occupational exposures in California wildland fire fighting.

Industrial hygiene measurement of exposures to wildland fire fighters was conducted in northern California during three consecutive fire seasons (1986-1989) in conjunction with three separate health effects studies. Chemicals that were monitored included carbon monoxide, total and respirable particulates, polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), crystalline silica, aldehydes, and benzene. Measurements were taken at both wildland fires and prescribed (planned) burns. A variety of collection methods were employed--colorimetric detector tubes and a CO monitor were used for direct-reading area measurements; colorimetric diffusion tubes, filter cassettes, sorbent tubes, and passive vapor monitors were used for determining personal time-weighted average exposures. A new screening method (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health Method 2539) was used to identify the presence of specific aldehydes. Results show that wildland fire fighters may at times be exposed to concentrations of carbon monoxide, total or respirable particulates, or silica at levels near or higher than recommended occupational exposure limits, although group means were generally well below the limits. Time-weighted average formaldehyde levels, measured in a few instances above 0.37 mg/m3 (0.3 ppm), indicate a potential for formaldehyde-induced eye or respiratory irritation under these conditions. Certain characteristics of the work such as high altitude, temperature, and breathing rate; extended work shifts; and additional off-shift exposures suggest that adjustment of 8-hr exposure limits may be necessary to provide adequate protection. In part, because of the rigors of performing industrial hygiene measurements under fire fighting conditions, data are limited and could not be considered representative of the full range of exposures fire fighters may encounter.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Air Pollutants, Occupational↗
PubMed1997

Uptake of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons among trainers in a fire-fighting training facility.

The exposure of fire-fighting trainers to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) was assessed by personal air sampling. Uptake of PAH was determined by biological monitoring, measuring a metabolite of pyrene, 1-hydroxypyrene, in urine. Eight-hour time-weighted average concentrations benzo(a)pyrene of 0.029 microgram/m3 (instructor), 0.045 microgram/m3 (safety officer), and 0.16 microgram/m3 (fire assistant) were found. Both tobacco smoking and exposure to smoke from fire appeared to be significant sources of increased 1-hydroxypyrene concentrations in fire-fighting trainers. There was evidence of exposure and uptake of PAH among fire-fighting instructors despite the short time of effective exposure and the routine use of protective respirators and protective clothing. Though the uptake of PAH was much lower than found in coke-oven workers, who are known to have an increased relative risk of cancer, a long-term health risk for fire-fighting trainers cannot be excluded. Biological monitoring with urinary 1-hydroxypyrene may be useful in tracing highly exposed persons and in monitoring the effectiveness of control measures.

Air Pollutants, Occupational↗
PubMed2004

Carbon monoxide and cyanide poisoning in fire related deaths in Victoria, Australia.

OBJECTIVE: This study was undertaken to examine the association of hydrogen cyanide and carboxyhaemoglobin in victims of fire related deaths in Australia. The secondary aim was to document demographic data about Australian fire related deaths. METHODS: An observational retrospective study was undertaken of autopsy reports from the Victorian Institute of Forensic Medicine. Reports of fire related deaths were electronically searched using the terms burns, "smoke" or "fire" as a cause of death in the calender years 1992 to 1998. Data on the circumstances of the fire and results of toxicological screening were obtained on 178 persons. Additional whole blood cyanide levels were determined if blood samples were available in storage. Demographics of the victims were analysed, as well as the relationship between carboxyhaemoglobin and whole blood cyanide levels. RESULTS: Most (82%) of the victims died at the scene, whilst 32 victims died after a period of hospitalisation (hours to weeks). Suicide as a result of self-immolation was the reported cause of death in 32 cases. Most of the fires were in houses (114) and cars (29). The blood ethanol level was zero in 112 cases; the remaining cases (53) had a mean level of 0.17%. Other central nervous system (CNS) depressants were recorded in 49 of the 134 cases that received a complete toxicological screen. Carboxyhaemoglobin levels were measured in only 154 of 178 cases. The carboxyhaemoglobin level was zero in 43 cases. The remaining cases (111) had a mean level of 40%; with 44 cases having a level greater than 50%, a level considered to be potentially lethal. Whole blood hydrogen cyanide levels were measured in only 138 of 178 cases. The hydrogen cyanide level was zero in 52 cases. The remaining cases (86) had a mean level of 1.65 mg/L; with 11 cases having a level greater than 3.0 mg/L (potentially fatal). Blood ethanol levels were significantly correlated with both carboxyhaemoglobin (R = 0.22, P < 0.01) and cyanide (R = 0.36, P < 0.001). In addition, a significant correlation (r = 0.34) between carboxyhaemoglobin and hydrogen cyanide levels was noted. CONCLUSIONS: This study showed a correlation between elevated blood ethanol and whole blood cyanide levels (r = 0.36, p < 0.001) and between elevated carboxyhaemoglobin and hydrogen cyanide levels (r = 0.34). Although the mean cyanide level was 1.3 mg/L (above the level some consider potentially toxic) in those cases with a carboxyhaemoglobin level of greater than 10%, there is insufficient data to permit recommendations for clinical care. Further studies are required on those victims that reach hospital alive.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1996

Fire fatalities in elderly people.

Fatal dwelling-house fires account for 10% of all accidental deaths in the United Kingdom with one-quarter of the deaths being of elderly people. No study had described the characteristics of elderly individuals who die in fires. We report results from a retrospective review of all fatal dwelling-house fires in Scotland from 1980 to 1990. Of 1096 people dying in fires, 243 (23%) were aged over 75. When compared with patients under the age of 75, older patients were significantly less likely to be smokers. Significantly more fires killing elderly people were caused by faulty or misused electrical items in the house, particularly electric blankets. These differences between elderly and younger individuals dying in dwelling-house fires may suggest that preventive strategies for the elderly population require a different emphasis from those for younger people.

Accidents, Home↗
PubMed2004

Tree growth and competition in a Betula platyphylla-Larix cajanderi post-fire forest in central Kamchatka.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Fire is the dominant disturbance in central Kamchatka boreal forests, yet patterns and mechanisms of stand recovery have not been investigated. METHODS: Measurements were made of 1433 stems > or =1.3 m height and annual radial increments of 225 randomly selected trees in a 0.4-ha plot of a 53-year-old fire-origin mixed-species stand to examine the spatio-temporal variation in establishment, growth, size inequality and the mode of competition among individual trees. Growth variations were related to tree size, age and local interference with neighbours. KEY RESULTS: Betula platyphylla formed the main canopy following a fire in 1947, with Larix cajanderi and Pinus pumila progressively reinvading the lower tree and shrub stratum. Most B. platyphylla originated from sprouts in small patches (polycormons) during the first 15 post-fire years. Betula platyphylla had normal distributions of diameter and age classes, but negatively skewed height distribution, as expected from shade-intolerant, pioneer species. Larix cajanderi had fewer tall and many short individuals. The smaller and younger B. platyphylla grew disproportionately more in diameter than larger trees from 1950 to 1975, and hence stem size inequalities decreased. The reverse trend was observed from 1995 to 2000: larger trees grew more, indicating an increasing asymmetry of competition for light. Betula platyphylla had steady diameter growth in the first 25 post-fire years, after which the growth declined in smaller trees. Neighbourhood analysis showed that the decline resulted from increased competition from taller neighbours. CONCLUSIONS: The observed growth patterns suggest that mode of interactions altered during stand development from early stages of weak competition for soil resources released by fire to later stages of asymmetric competition for light. Asymmetric crown competition started later than reported in other studies, which can be attributed to the lower stem density leaving much space for individual growth, greater relative importance of below-ground competition in this site of nutrient-poor volcanic soil, and the vegetative origin of B. platyphylla. Larix cajanderi growing under B. platyphylla had steady diameter growth during the first 20 years, after which growth declined. It is suggested that early succession fits the tolerance model of succession, while inhibition dominates in later stages.

Betula↗
PubMed1996

The dynamics of flash fires involving flammable hydrocarbon liquids.

Victims of fires are sometimes discovered to have less-than-lethal levels of carbon monoxide (CO) in the blood and no significant antemortem fire damage. Such occurrences are often linked to flash fires involving volatile hydrocarbon fuels. In this study, the dynamics of hydrocarbon fuel fires are examined, and the results of fullscale room tests ignited with small (< 2 L) quantities of flammable liquid are found to confirm the theoretical predictions. These tests showed that flame plumes with temperatures of 500-975 degrees C were produced above flammable liquids. Ignition of their vapors in a carpeted room produced a very short-lived flash of fire throughout the room, followed by intense flames in a layer above the floor approximately 1 m deep, which quickly degenerated to isolated pools of low flames. Combustion of hydrocarbon vapors in a room caused oxygen levels to drop below 8.5% in < 100 s, while causing carbon dioxide (CO2) levels to increase to 12-16% whether the door to the room was open or closed. Production of CO trailed maximum CO2 production by 15-30 s. A victim exposed to such a fire may collapse from extreme heat (aided by the water vapor created by the combustion of hydrocarbons), weakened by oxygen deprivation, before CO inhalation becomes a significant factor.

Carbon Dioxide↗
PubMed1998

Interpretation of accelerants in blood of cadavers found in the wreckage after fire.

Accelerants in the blood of 73 cadavers found in wreckage after fire were analyzed by gas chromatography (GC) and a combination of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to decide whether accelerants containing petroleum components had been used and whether the cadavers had been exposed to fire before or after death. In 16 of 26 cases in which accelerants were used to start a fire before death, accelerants were detected in the blood. In 7 cases in which accelerants were used to start a fire, the victims were determined to have been exposed to the vapor of accelerants after death because no accelerants were detected in the blood, no soot was found in the airways, and carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) concentrations were not higher than those found in smokers. In 9 of 34 cases in which accelerants were suspected to have been used to start a fire before death, accelerants were detected in the blood. When soot is not detectable by the unaided eye in the airways of a victim found in debris of a fire in which the use of accelerants is suspected, or the COHb concentration in the blood is no higher than in a smoker, analysis of accelerants in the blood seems to be helpful in determining the cause of death and whether inflammable were used.

Adolescent↗