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PubMed1991

Intra-midbrain raphe injections of the neurokinin-3 agonist senktide inhibit food and water intake in the rat.

Microinjection and lesion studies have implicated the midbrain dorsal (DR) and median raphe (MR) nuclei in behavioral arousal. This behavioral state is manifested as locomotor hyperactivity, hyperphagia, hyperdipsia and increases in plasma corticosteroid release. Intra-midbrain raphe injections of the GABAA agonist muscimol elicit this behavioral activation. We have demonstrated that similar infusions of tachykinins produce locomotor hyperactivity through activation of neurokinin-3 (NK-3) receptors located on serotonin cell bodies. The purpose of the present study was to determine the effects of intra-MR and DR infusions of senktide, an NK-3 agonist, on food and water consumption in nondeprived rats. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were implanted with indwelling intra-MR or intra-DR cannula. Infusions of muscimol (25 ng/0.5 microliters) into the MR increased water intake, while MR and DR infusions increased food consumption. In contrast, intra-MR injections of senktide decreased water intake and intra-MR and DR injections decreased food intake. The results suggest that the behavioral states induced by muscimol and neurokinin infusions into the raphe are distinct and that raphe/neurokinin pathways are involved in consummatory mechanisms.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Hindbrain catecholamine neurons control multiple glucoregulatory responses.

Reduced brain glucose availability evokes an integrated constellation of responses that protect and restore the brain's glucose supply. These include increased food intake, adrenal medullary secretion, corticosterone secretion and suppression of estrous cycles. Our research has focused on mechanisms and neural circuitry underlying these systemic glucoregulatory responses. Using microinjection techniques, we found that localized glucoprivation of hindbrain but not hypothalamic sites, elicited key glucoregulatory responses, indicating that glucoreceptor cells controlling these responses are located in the hindbrain. Selective destruction of hindbrain catecholamine neurons using the retrogradely transported immunotoxin, anti-dopamine beta-hydroxylase conjugated to saporin (DSAP), revealed that spinally-projecting epinephrine (E) or norepinephrine (NE) neurons are required for the adrenal medullary response to glucoprivation, while E/NE neurons with hypothalamic projections are required for feeding, corticosterone and reproductive responses. We also found that E/NE neurons are required for both consummatory and appetitive phases of glucoprivic feeding, suggesting that multilevel collateral projections of these neurons coordinate various components of the behavioral response. Epinephrine or NE neurons co-expressing neuropeptide Y (NPY) may be the neuronal phenotype required for glucoprivic feeding: they increase NPY mRNA expression in response to glucoprivation and are nearly eliminated by DSAP injections that abolish glucoprivic feeding. In contrast, lesion of arcuate nucleus NPY neurons, using the toxin, NPY-saporin, does not impair glucoprivic feeding or hyperglycemic responses. Thus, hindbrain E/NE neurons orchestrate multiple concurrent glucoregulatory responses. Specific catecholamine phenotypes may mediate the individual components of the overall response. Glucoreceptive control of these neurons resides within the hindbrain.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Modulation by central and basolateral amygdalar nuclei of dopaminergic correlates of feeding to satiety in the rat nucleus accumbens and medial prefrontal cortex.

Current studies raise the possibility that subregions within the amygdala may interact with the mesocorticolimbic dopamine (DA) system to subserve specific psychological processes underlying food reward. The present study compared the effect of reversible inactivation of the central nucleus (CeN) versus the basolateral amygdala (BLA) on DA efflux in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) in hungry rats that were tested in a food-devaluation procedure. During DA microdialysis experiments, lidocaine, a sodium channel blocker, was delivered via reverse dialysis into the CeN or BLA while rats were given two consecutive meals of Froot Loops. Loss of CeN function impaired the development of satiety during an initial meal and, consequently, diminished the effect of devaluation by satiety on intake of the same food during a second meal. Inactivation of the CeN was also associated with decreased basal levels of DA efflux in the NAc before food intake and attenuated increases in DA efflux related to anticipatory and consummatory aspects of feeding in both the NAc and mPFC. In contrast, inactivation of the BLA did not affect feeding behavior or DA efflux. Overall, these findings indicate that the CeN and BLA independently modulate DA transmission in both terminal regions. It is proposed that interaction between the CeN and mesocorticolimbic DA activity may be a mechanism by which hunger and satiety signals influence the value of food reward, or alternatively, a mechanism by which memory for a recently consumed food regulates food intake.

Amygdala↗
PubMed1985

Effects of acute food and/or water deprivation on muricide.

The present experiment was designed to test certain predictions derived from models of interactions between muricide and appetitive behaviors proposed earlier by Russell and Singer [8,9]. One of the major features of the models centered on whether the two types of behavior are inevitably related. The general design of the present experiment involved testing for muricide either (a) after deprivation of food and/or water or (b) at times during the normal diurnal cycle when the two consummatory responses were at their minima and maxima. Deprivation and testing for muricide were limited to a single episode in order to eliminate confounding effects of repeated deprivations and of repeated exposures to prey. Periods of acute deprivation ranging from 5.5 to 22.0 hr did not induce significant quantitative changes in muricidal behavior. However, muricide and the appetitive behaviors did co-vary under conditions associated with the normal diurnal cycle. Comparing the present results with findings from experiments using repeated deprivation leads to the suggestion that covariation of appetitive and muricidal behaviors is not an innate characteristic, but rather is acquired through processes of learning. Present results further suggest that each of the two types of behavior has its own physiological substrate which can be modified independently, but also may be activated concomitantly by a common set of antecedent conditions.

Aggression↗
PubMed1972

Epimeletic vomiting in female dogs during the rearing process of their puppies.

The epimeletic behavior consisting in vomiting the digested food in the presence of puppies was described in postpartum bitches. It begins at first month after the birth of puppies and may last up to five months. The main stimuli eliciting vomiting is the presence of the puppies close to the mother in the nest-pen, and their et-epimeletic behavior consisting of following the bitch, jumping upon her, and licking her mouth. When the puppies are removed from the nest-pen, the epimeletic vomiting of ingested food is stopped either immediately or after a few days. It is suggested that there exists a specific epimeletic drive whose consummatory response is vomiting. The biological role of this drive is to secure food to puppies before they are able to secure it by themselves.

Animals↗
PubMed1973

The form of the auto-shaped response with food or water reinforcers.

The relation between the form of auto-shaped responses to the lighting of a key and the consummatory responses of pecking grain and drinking water was examined in pigeons. Responses on the key were analyzed by means of high-speed photography, recordings of the force of contact, and judges' ratings of response-form based on film and videotape recordings. The first experiment showed that food-deprived birds presented grain as a reinforcer responded on the key with a grain-pecking movement, while water-deprived birds presented water as a reinforcer responded with drinking-like movements. The second and third experiments showed that the resemblance between auto-shaped and consummatory responses does not require the dominance of the deprivational state appropriate to the reinforcer. Changing the dominant state of deprivation did not immediately change the form of the key response, and in subjects simultaneously deprived of food and water, the form of response depended on the reinforcer. In the fourth and fifth experiments, subjects simultaneously deprived of food and water received one stimulus signalling food and another signalling water in a random series. In most subjects, the response to each stimulus resembled the consummatory response to the particular reinforcer that was signalled by the stimulus. This result demonstrates the role of association between a stimulus and a reinforcer in producing a resemblance of the auto-shaped response to the consummatory response.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Neural control of feeding.

Substantial progress has been made in identifying the possible signals for initiating and terminating the appetitive aspects of feeding behavior in vertebrates. Strong evidence now implicates ATP (or an ATP-like molecule) and a fall in glucose in initiating feeding. In invertebrates, particular progress has been made in defining the nature and mechanisms of action of the neurotransmitters and peptide co-transmitters that regulate the consummatory aspects of feeding, and a number of new research tools for modelling the operation of simple feeding motor program networks have been developed.

Biogenic Amines↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Endogenous opiates: 1983.

This paper is the sixth in an annual series of reviews of research involving the endogenous opiates, each installment being restricted to work published during the previous year. Although the early articles in the series attempted to be comprehensive and cover the complete range of research with the opiate peptides, in the last two years we have limited our coverage to non-analgesic and behavioral work due to the enormous number of articles published in the field. The specific areas discussed here include stress, tolerance and dependence, consummatory responses, other gastrointestinal functions, interactions with alcohol, mental illness, learning and memory, cardiovascular responses, respiratory effects, thermoregulation, neurological disorders, activity, and miscellaneous other topics. As in previous years, we have attempted to present a relatively complete review of the subjects covered only for the previous year and generally have not tried to evaluate their contributions relative to those of past years.

Analgesia↗
PubMed1985

An electromyographic analysis of electrically-evoked prey-catching behavior by means of stimuli applied to the optic tectum in the Japanese toad.

As a step toward elucidating the tectal-controlling functions for generating the prey-catching motor pattern, electrically-evoked "snapping" (the final consummatory phase of the prey-catching sequence) by means of stimuli applied to the optic tectum was analyzed using electromyographic methods in freely-moving Japanese toads. Electromyographic activities were recorded from the following 7 muscles in the head region (the presumed "snapping"-related muscles): M. depressor mandibulae, M. temporalis, M. sternohyoideus, M. geniohyoideus, M. genioglossus, M. hyoglossus, and M. submentalis. It was found that the characteristic activities evoked in these muscles were associated with jaw/tongue movements during the electrically-evoked "snapping". All of these muscles, except for sternohyoideus and geniohyoideus muscles, were activated in an all-or-nothing manner which corresponded to the elicitation of the electrically-evoked "snapping". It was suggested that such an all-or-nothing character may reflect an all-or-nothing property of the neuronal circuits for generating the prey-catching motor-pattern.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Nucleus accumbens dopamine release increases during instrumental lever pressing for food but not free food consumption.

This experiment was undertaken to investigate the role of nucleus accumbens dopamine (DA) in instrumental and consummatory responses for food. In vivo microdialysis methods were used to study DA release and metabolism in the nucleus accumbens of behaving rats. Four behavioral conditions were used: performance on a fixed ratio 5 (FR 5) schedule of food reinforcement, consumption of Bioserve food pellets, consumption of laboratory chow, and food deprivation control. Groups of rats that were previously exposed to these conditions were implanted with dialysis probes in the nucleus accumbens and tested the day after implantation. The rats that pressed a lever on a FR 5 schedule showed significant increases in extracellular DA and DA metabolites compared to food-deprived control rats. In further analyses, rats that responded on the FR5 schedule were divided into three groups based upon their response rates. The rats with low response rates did not significantly differ from control rats, whereas rats with medium and high rates of responding showed significant increases in DA release relative to the control group. Rats that received massed presentation of food pellets or laboratory chow consumed large quantities of food, but showed no significant increases in DA release. This experiment demonstrated that performance of lever pressing behavior is accompanied by an increase in accumbens DA release and metabolism, and that DA release in nucleus accumbens is more closely related to the performance of highly active instrumental responses than it is to consumption of large quantities of food.

3,4-Dihydroxyphenylacetic Acid↗
PubMed2001

Muscimol infusions in the brain stem reticular formation reversibly block ingestion in the awake rat.

Previous studies have localized a central pattern generator for mastication to the midline pontomedullary reticular formation (RF) based on cortically induced ororhythmic movements. The present study determined whether this same substrate mediated licking responses evoked by more natural stimuli. Licking in the awake rat was initiated either through an appetitive response to sucrose presented in a bottle or by intraoral (IO) infusions. Oral rejection responses also were obtained by IO infusions of quinine hydrochloride. Small volumes of the GABA(A) agonist muscimol bilaterally infused into the lateral medullary RF significantly reduced licking and oral rejection responses measured electromyographically from the anterior digastric and geniohyoid muscles. Other than the decrement or absence of ororhythmic activity, rats appeared normal and actively approached and probed the water bottle. The suppression was reversible and returned to baseline within 3 h. In contrast, midline infusions of muscimol did not affect licking or rejection responses. We postulate that the lateral medullary RF is an essential final common path for ingestive consummatory responses.

Administration, Oral↗
PubMed1986

Effects of rate and distance of procurement wheel-running on saccharin-and-sucrose solution drinking by non-deprived rats.

Four non-deprived rats received daily sessions of 20 min access to a saccharin-and-sucrose solution following various prior activities, in an attempt to disentangle the normally confounded roles of time spent, amount and rate of procurement responding in causing an increase in consumption once access is gained. After the normal rate of running (approx 35 m/min) was established, six conditions were run in random order, involving waiting zero and 2.5 min in an immobilised running-wheel, and running, with the wheel rotated by a motor, in four conditions formed by combining two speeds (12 and 30 m/min) with two distances (12 and 30 m), prior to access to the solution. Drinking increased with the speed of prior running, and to a lesser extent with the distance run, but was not related systematically to the time spent running. It is suggested that information from the animal's own behavior in gaining access to a commodity, particularly the rate of energy expenditure, may influence its utilisation of the commodity by affecting the rate of subsequent consummatory responding.

Animals↗
PubMed1996

Anticipatory contrast effect in rats: a new view with lick response analysis and the effect of dopamine blocking.

A negative anticipatory contrast effect (NACE) is manifested as a suppression of the effect of a reward stimulus to elicit consummatory or instrumental responses when a second more potent reward is presented right afterward. No well-supported theory explains the effect. We analyzed NACE with rats' licking responses to 3 solutions with varying reward value: 8% sucrose mixed with 0.008% quinine (A), 8% sucrose with 0.002% quinine (B), and 32% sucrose with 0.008% quinine (C). 3 groups (n = 4) of rats were given 2 solutions in succession, each 5 min with 15 s in between, for a total of 11 days: Group AA (control), A then A; Group AB, A then B; Group AC, A then C. On days 13 to 16, and 12 and 17, pimozide (0.4 mg/kg, i.p.), and the vehicle solution were injected, respectively. Results show that the licking of A was a function of what solution to follow: In AC, the total number of licks, the short interlick interval (SILI), and the number of licks per s during the initial contact were less than AA. In AB, only SILI was less. Licking of A was initially low but increased over days, except for AC. The failure of AC to increase the licking was attributed to a "retroactive overshadowing" effect of a more potent stimulus C blocking stimulus A to form a reward learning, thus preventing its rewarding property to be fully manifested. It may also be due to stimulus A becoming a "signal" for incoming reward, thus degrading its own rewarding function. The shorter SILI in AB and AC suggested a reward devaluation; however, devaluation alone did not predict the consummatory response. Pimozide reduced licking number overall without altering the relative reward property or SILI suggesting that NACE was not a dopamine-mediated motivated choosing behavior.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Feeding stimulants activate an identified dopaminergic interneuron that induces the feeding motor program in Helisoma.

The neurotransmitter dopamine is shown to play a fundamental role in the generation of the feeding motor pattern and resultant feeding behavior in Helisoma. Application of exogenous dopamine triggered the fictive feeding motor pattern in the isolated CNS and triggered feeding movements in semi-intact preparations. Application of feeding stimulants to the oral cavity excited the putatively dopaminergic buccal interneuron N1a, and depolarization of interneuron N1a triggered the production of the fictive feeding motor pattern. The ability of dopamine superfusion and of interneuron N1a stimulation to activate the fictive feeding motor pattern was blocked by the dopamine antagonist sulpiride. The phase of the fictive feeding motor pattern was reset by brief hyperpolarization of interneuron N1a, demonstrating that interneuron N1a is an integral component of the buccal central pattern generator (CPG). During spontaneous fictive feeding patterns, prolonged hyperpolarizations of interneuron N1a inhibited the production of patterned activity. Exogenous dopamine maintained the fictive feeding motor pattern in the absence of interneuron N1a activity. Interneuron N1a was labeled by the formaldehyde-glutaraldehyde histochemical technique, which is indicative of the presence of dopamine in mollusks. These data suggest that interneuron N1a is an endogenous source of the neuromodulator dopamine, intrinsic to the buccal CPG, and that interneuron N1a has a prominent role in the sensory-motor integration triggering the consummatory response.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Evidence that appetitive responses for dehydration and food-deprivation are learned.

Rats do not seek water when cellularly dehydrated until they are about 4 weeks of age. This lack of appetitive 'seeking' behavior in young rats differs from their precocious ingestive responses such as an increased intake of solutions infused into their mouths when they are dehydrated as young as 2 days of age. Using video analysis of appetitive behavior in a structured environment, we document this early absence of appetitive responding and the subsequent acquisition of dehydration-elicited appetitive behavior. Weaning age pups were separated into four conditions: (i) experienced, dehydrated; (ii) experienced, nondehydrated; (iii) inexperienced, dehydrated; and (iv) inexperienced, nondehydrated. 'Experienced' rats received a dehydration and drinking experience prior to the test, and 'dehydrated' rats were dehydrated (by injection of a salt load) at the time of test. At the test, all water and food was removed from the test cages, eliminating the confounding of appetitive and consummatory measures. Despite the fact that pups in all conditions had experience with water and had previously drunk, only the 'experienced' pups differentially sought water when dehydrated. Parallel experiments with food deprivation produced similar results. Pups did not exhibit food-seeking behavior when food-deprived unless they had previous experience with food deprivation and eating. The appetitive 'seeking' behavior for feeding also appears to be learned. Directed appetitive behavior in general may thus be acquired.

Animals↗
PubMed1981

Trigeminal deafferentation and ingestive behavior in rats.

For studying the role of orosensory input in the control of ingestive behavior, rats were subjected to varying degrees of trigeminal deafferentation. Somatosensory branches that convey touch, temperature, and pain from the oral cavity were sectioned selectively, and innervation of the muscles of mastication and taste afferents were left intact. Severe intake deficits were produced, which included aphagia, adipsia, and prolonged hypophagia accompanied by a corresponding decrease in body weight. The deficits were proportional to the extent of deafferentation and were most severe when upper and lower portions of the mouth were affected. Although somatosensory impairment affected the organization of the consummatory response, all rats could bite, chew, and lick. Analysis of feeding patterns of minimally (mandibular) deafferented rats showed that the animals compensated for the consummatory inefficiency by increasing meal duration but failed to initiate meals at the normal rate, thus keeping food intake below normal levels. These results suggest that oral somatosensory input is critical for the mechanisms that regulate ingestive behavior.

Afferent Pathways↗
PubMed2000

Chemical and thermal stimuli have short-lived effects on the retzius cell in the medicinal leech.

During the appetitive phase of feeding, hungry leeches detect a prey by the integration of signals perceived by different sensory systems. Earlier reports suggested that chemical or thermal sensory stimulation of the lip was associated with increased afferent activity in cephalic nerves connecting the lip to the central nervous system. These authors further suggested that this activity was relayed to Retzius cells in segmental ganglia, which then released serotonin to initiate and control all aspects of feeding behavior. In this study, we show that chemosensory or thermal activation of the lip lasting for at least 5 min produces a distinct signal in the cephalic nerves consisting of action potentials of low amplitude. These small amplitude signals are clearly distinguishable from the large action potentials evoked by mechanosensory stimuli applied to the same area of the lip. Both types of sensory stimuli also evoke an increase in the firing frequency of the Retzius cells in segmental ganglia. However, the response recorded in the nerves and the Retzius cells during a maintained stimulus is not constant but decreases with an exponential time course. These results agree with our earlier observations on a semi-intact feeding preparation in which we showed that the firing frequency of the Retzius cell decreased as soon as the leech began to ingest its meal. Therefore, our data provide further evidence suggesting that it is unlikely that heat or chemical cues maintain the Retzius cell in an active state throughout the consummatory phase of feeding.

Action Potentials↗