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PubMed2006

Facial and affective reactions to tastes and their modulation by sadness and joy.

This study examined adults' affective and facial reactions to tastes which differ in quality and valence, and the impact of sadness and joy on these reactions. Thirty-six male and female subjects participated voluntarily. Subjects each tasted 6 ml of a sweet chocolate drink, a bitter quinine solution (0.0015 M) and a bitter-sweet soft drink. Following a baseline period, either joy or sadness was induced using film clips before the same taste stimuli were presented for a second time. Subjects rated the drinks' pleasantness and intensity of taste immediately after each stimulus presentation. Facial reactions were videotaped and analysed using the Facial Action Coding System (FACS [P. Ekman, W.V. Friesen, Facial Action Coding System: Manual. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press; 1978., P. Ekman, W. Friesen, J. Hager, Facial Action Coding System. Salt Lake City, Utah: Research Nexus; 2002.]). The results strongly indicated that the tastes produced specific facial reactions that bear strong similarities to the facial reactivity patterns found in human newborns. The data also suggest that some adults' facial reactions serve additional communicative functions. Emotions modulated taste ratings, but not facial reactions to tastes. In particular, ratings of the sweet stimulus were modulated in congruence with emotion quality, such that joy increased and sadness decreased the pleasantness and sweetness of the sweet stimulus. No emotion-congruent modulation was found for the pleasantness and intensity ratings of the bitter or the bitter-sweet stimulus. This 'robustness' of bitter taste ratings may reflect a biologically meaningful mechanism.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

NaCl and sugar release, salivation and taste during mastication of salted chewing gum.

Salt perception impacts on food acceptability and nutrition and depends upon salt release from foods that was determined in situ during mastication of chewing gum with up to 10% (1800 mmol/kg) added NaCl. The mechanical action of chewing increased salivation, which was further increased by the presence of salt, particularly above 180 mmol NaCl/kg gum or above 100 mM NaCl in saliva. The average resting salivary flow rate was 1 ml/min, increasing to 4 and 6 ml/min with gums containing low and high salt, respectively. Thus, stimulation of salivation by salt occurred at a concentration well above the taste threshold of 20 mM NaCl. NaCl concentration in nonstimulated saliva was about 10 mM and increased to 500 mM after 30 s chewing of the 10% NaCl gum and returned to near nonstimulated levels after 4 min chewing. Changes in pH of saliva were more gradual, increasing to a maximum at about 2 min and remaining elevated after 4 min. Salty taste was related to the free chloride ion concentration in saliva irrespective of the initial salt concentration in the gum with an indication of adaptation after 3 min chewing. During chewing, salty taste increased ahead of the increase in salivary conductivity and the salt concentration in the sublingual saliva varied in a cyclic fashion about every 20 s. This is consistent with a cyclic swallowing of saliva and replacement with newly secreted saliva of low salt content and mastication releasing further salt from the gum.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Progressive ratio performance in rats with gustatory thalamus lesions.

To determine whether damage of the gustatory thalamus (the parvicellular region of the ventroposteromedial nucleus) disrupts the perceived value of reinforcing stimuli, the performance of rats with bilateral, electrophysiologically guided, electrolytic lesions of the area was examined in Experiment 1 with a progressive-ratio schedule of reinforcement. Lesioned rats showed normal concentration-dependent changes in break point (an index of the amount of effort a subject will expend to obtain reinforcement) and in consummatory responding (licking) for the sucrose reward. In the reward comparison procedure of Experiment 2, however, the same lesioned rats failed to show morphine-induced suppression of alanine consumption. The results provide no support for the view that the thalamic taste area is involved in the perception of the absolute reinforcing value of gustatory stimuli.

Alanine↗
PubMed2001

Hemispheric dominance of cortical activity evoked by focal electrogustatory stimuli.

Functional magnetic resonance imaging was used to observe cortical hemodynamic responses to electric taste stimuli applied separately to the right and left sides of the tongue tip. In 11 right-handed normal adults activation occurred primarily in the insular cortex, superior temporal lobe, inferior frontal lobe, including premotor regions, and in inferior parts of the postcentral gyrus. Unexpectedly, the location and laterality of activation were largely identical regardless of the side of the tongue stimulated. Activation in the superior insula, the presumed location of primary gustatory cortex, was predominantly, but not exclusively, in the right hemisphere, whereas central (more inferior) insular activations were more evenly bilateral. Right hemispheric dominance of activation also occurred in premotor regions (Brodmann areas 6 and 44), whereas left hemispheric dominance occurred only in the superior temporal cortex (Brodmann areas 22/42). The electric taste-evoked hemodynamic response pattern was more consistent with activation of the gustatory system than activation of somatosensory systems. The results suggest that the sites for cortical processing of electric taste information are dependent on hemispheric specialization.

Adult↗
PubMed1976

Extraordinary experiences during cross-modal perception.

9 Ss were requested to perceive simultaneously the taste of beer and a rhythmic sound, the pitch of which could be varied. The frequencies at which Ss experienced harmony between the taste and the sound were determined. At the pitch of harmony Ss reported characteristic experiences, e.g., optimum taste of the beer, rhythmic sensations in the head, and tickling sensations in the jaws and the mouth. 3 Ss also reported experiences resembling those described by persons under the influence of such drugs as mescaline, psilocybin, LSD, and cannabis.

Acoustic Stimulation↗
PubMed2001

On specification and the senses.

In this target article we question the assumption that perception is divided into separate domains of vision, hearing, touch, taste, and smell. We review implications of this assumption for theories of perception and for our understanding of ambient energy arrays (e.g., the optic and acoustic arrays) that are available to perceptual systems. We analyze three hypotheses about relations between ambient arrays and physical reality: (1) that there is an ambiguous relation between ambient energy arrays and physical reality, (2) that there is a unique relation between individual energy arrays and physical reality, and (3) that there is a redundant but unambiguous relation, within or across arrays, between energy arrays and physical reality. This is followed by a review of the physics of motion, focusing on the existence and status of referents for physical motion. Our review indicates that it is not possible, in principle, for there to be a unique relation between physical motion and the structure of individual energy arrays. We argue that physical motion relative to different referents is specified only in the global array, which consists of higher-order relations across different forms of energy. The existence of specificity in the global array is consistent with the idea of direct perception, and so poses a challenge to traditional, inference-based theories of perception and cognition. However, it also presents a challenge to much of the ecological approach to perception and action, which has accepted the assumption of separate senses.

Auditory Perception↗
PubMed1997

Sensory properties of a nonabsorbable fat substitute did not affect regulation of energy intake.

Many reduced-fat foods retain the sensory properties of their high-fat counterparts through the use of fat substitutes. This study examined whether regulation of energy intake is affected when the nonabsorbable fat substitute olestra is used to uncouple the sensory properties of fat from fat absorption and metabolism. Cream of broccoli soups were developed in three versions: fat-free, fat-free+olestra (33.3 g olestra), and high-fat (33.3 g fat) (923900 and 2150 kJ per serving, respectively). The olestra soup had the nutrient composition of the fat-free soup but the sensory properties of the high-fat soup. Subjects were grouped by sex, body weight, and dietary restraint (total n = 67). Subjects had either no preload (control) or a soup preload (465 g) followed by a self-selection lunch. Intake was measured at lunch, dinner, snack, and breakfast. At lunch, the response to the soup preloads was not affected by sex, dietary restraint, or body weight. Energy intake (soup+lunch) was significantly greater in the high-fat than in the control condition (P < 0.05), but energy intake in the fat-free and olestra-soup conditions was not significantly different from that in the control condition (3570, 3352, 3464, and 4457 kJ in control, fat-free, olestra, and high-fat soup conditions, respectively). Thus, subjects compensated completely for the energy in the fat-free and olestra soups but not for the energy in the high-fat soup. No differences were found in the response to the two fat-free conditions, one with the fatty taste and one without. In this study the sensory properties of fat alone, ie, apart from the physiologic effects of fat, did not affect energy regulation.

Absorption↗
PubMed1983

Blood glucose selectively affects taste-evoked activity in rat nucleus tractus solitarius.

Gustatory afferent activity and the perceptions it evokes have proven to be modifiable by physiological needs. We monitored changes in taste responses in the rat nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS) as a function of blood glucose levels. Taste stimuli were 0.1 M NaCl, 1.0 M glucose, 0.03 M HCl and 0.01 M QHCl. Gustatory activity was selectively modified as an inverse function of blood glucose. Intravenous injections caused blood glucose levels to rise from 90 to near 200 mg% 5-15 min post-injection, with slow recovery thereafter. During the 5-15 min period, NTS responses to glucose were depressed an average 43%, NaCl by 20%, HCl by 16% and QHCl by 3%. Time courses of all responses were unmodified. This effect, probably mediated either by glucoreceptors in NTS or by vagal afferents from the gut, suggests a particular suppression of more appetitive tastes, and so may provide a neural concomitant to the decreased appeal of food which accompanies satiety.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Blood pressure relates to sodium taste sensitivity and discrimination in adolescents.

To investigate salt perception and discrimination and their possible association with blood pressure (BP), 72 healthy adolescents (42 boys) aged 9-21 years (mean 16.1 years) were studied. BP was measured with a standardized technique. Anthropometric measurement and conventional renal function tests were performed. Sensitivity tests to recognize the presence of salt when given simultaneously distilled/deionized water and a low sodium concentration water solution, and discrimination tests consisting of six graded samples of different saline solutions presented in randomized order were used to assess individual gustatory sensitivity. Average systolic BP values were 113.2+/-1.6 mmHg in boys and 109.6+/-1.9 mmHg in girls. Mean threshold level for salt sensitivity was 4.55+/-0.6 mmol/l. Systolic BP and salt sensitivity showed a significant correlation ( r=-0.33, P<0.01) even when adjusting for weight. Discrimination score was correlated with salt sensitivity ( r=0.27, P<0.05). There is a significant association between gustatory perception and BP in Spain adolescents, although a real cause-effect relationship has not been established.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1975

Children's evaluations of temporally distant outcomes.

Forty 4th grade boys indicated their perceptions of value and of excitement at the expected receipt, either immediately or a week later, of good- and bad-tasting foods. They also chose between receiving immediately either the food originally expected immediately, or the one expected in a week's time. Delayed bad-tasting foods were judged less aversive and chosen more often than immediately expected ones. Evaluations and choices of good-tasting foods revealed similar, although weaker, trends. These findings are interpreted as reflecting the 10-year-old's confusion of subjective excitement and objective value, which arises from inadequate attention to the effects of delay. The findings are compared with results obtained in a similar study with 7th grade boys.

Age Factors↗