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PubMed1998

Reading and spelling acquisition in French: the role of phonological mediation and orthographic factors.

The objective of this research was to study the development of reading and spelling in French. The two main hypotheses were that (1) phonological mediation is the primary process in the acquisition of these skills and that (2) the use of phonological mediation may allow the construction of the orthographic lexicon. In January and June, first graders (n = 57) were required to read and spell items designed to assess the variables of regularity, graphemic complexity, frequency, lexicality and analogy. The findings of the January session partially corroborated the first hypothesis as a regularity effect, but no frequency effect and no word superiority, were found both in reading and spelling. The main contradictory finding was the presence, in early reading only, of a facilitative effect of analogy. The changes in the frequency and the lexicality effects between the two sessions in reading and in spelling indicated that the children were able to rapidly construct an orthographic lexicon. However, this procedure did not entirely replace phonological mediation since a regularity effect and regularization errors were observed and increased between sessions. The second hypothesis was supported as relationships were found to exist between early phonological skills and subsequent orthographic skills. Finally, we observed that French children were using graphemes (not only letters), in the early stage of reading, and, to a lesser extent, in the early stage of spelling. The findings are discussed in the context of developmental models of reading and spelling.

Child↗
PubMed1999

Units of analysis in nonword reading: evidence from children and adults.

Four experiments examined variations in children's (chronological age range: 5 years 7 months to 9 years 10 months) and adults' reading strategy as a function of task demands. Experiment 1 found that less skilled readers (mean reading age: 8 years 8 months), though able to make use of rime-based spelling-to-sound correspondences (reading "by analogy"), predominantly used simple grapheme-phoneme-level correspondences in reading isolated unfamiliar items. Skilled children (mean reading age: 11 years 6 months) were more likely to adopt an analogy strategy. Experiments 2 and 3 adopted versions of the "clue word" technique used by U. Goswami (1986, Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 42, 73-83; 1988, Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 40A, 239-268) and found a much higher incidence of analogical responding by children of all ages, suggesting that reading strategy is task-dependent. Experiment 4 showed that adults' nonword-reading strategy is determined by list composition, in that grapheme-phoneme correspondences are used more when the list context contains nonwords. It is concluded that both adults and young children exhibit considerable flexibility and task-dependence in the levels of spelling-to-sound correspondence (analogies vs decoding) that they use and that grapheme-phoneme correspondences are preferred when maximum generalization to unfamiliar items is required.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Blinks as an index of cognitive activity during reading.

Horizontal and vertical EOG recordings of eye movements were analyzed to determine the spatial and temporal distribution of blinks and the patterns of eye movements (saccades and fixation pauses) exhibited by six subjects during the reading of stories presented in two formats (on paper and on a VDT). The frequency and placement of blinks was not affected by the presentation condition. Blinks were determined to be non-randomly distributed during reading. Significantly more blinks (36%) occurred in conjunction with saccades than the proportion of time consumed by saccades (12%) would predict. Significantly more blinks (36%) occurred in the vicinity of line change saccades, which accounts for 15% of reading time, and with fixation pauses associated with regressions (42%), which accounts for 26% of reading time, than with fixation pauses during normal reading (22%), which accounts for 60% of reading time. The results of the study suggest that blink behavior during reading is under perceptual and cognitive control.

Adult↗
PubMed1998

Eye movements in reading with hemianopic field defects: the significance of clinical parameters.

BACKGROUND: Reading disability is the main problem in patients with hemianopic field defects (HFD). The purpose of this study was to examine eye movement patterns in HFD with special emphasis on the importance of clinical parameters. METHODS: 40 patients with HFD (21 left, 19 right) and 21 normal subjects were examined by an infrared reflection system to record eye movements during reading and by Tübingen perimetry. Reading and clinical parameters were correlated. RESULTS: Reading speed was reduced in all patients compared to normal subjects (853 vs 1541 characters/min), in right (785 char/min) more than in left HFD (915 char/ min). The number of saccades and regressions per line was markedly increased in right HFD (9.8 vs 4.5; 2.2 vs 0.3), less so in left HFD (6.4; 1.0). The number of saccades during the return sweep was more increased in left HFD (1.5 vs 0.5) than in right HFD (0.9). Reading parameters improve with increasing distance of HFD to the visual field center (minimum in right HFD 5 degrees, in left HFD 2 degrees) and with increasing time since onset. Some left HFD patients learn a predictive strategy for the return sweep. The effect is less pronounced for age and skill and is absent for the localization of the lesion. CONCLUSION: Patients with right HFD are more disabled. The side of the HFD, its distance to the visual field center and the time since onset are significant parameters for reading performance. The analysis of reading parameters in correlation with clinical parameters provides valuable information about the necessary perceptual field and learning effects and is helpful in rehabilitation.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

FMRI of ventral and dorsal processing streams in basic reading processes: insular sensitivity to phonology.

Most current models of the neurophysiology of basic reading processes agree on a system involving two cortical streams: a ventral stream (occipital-temporal) used when accessing familiar words encoded in lexical memory, and a dorsal stream (occipital-parietal-frontal) used when phonetically decoding words (i.e., mapping sublexical spelling onto sounds). The models diverge, however, on the issue of whether the insular cortex is involved. The present fMRI study required participants to read aloud exception words (e.g., 'one', which must be read via lexical memory) and pseudohomophones (e.g., 'wun', which must be read via sublexical spelling to sound translation) to examine the processing streams as well as the insular cortex, and their relationship to lexical and sublexical reading processes. The present study supports the notion of independent ventral-lexical and dorsal-sublexical streams, and further suggests the insular cortex to be sensitive to phonological processing (particularly sublexical spelling-sound translation). These latter findings illuminate the nature of insular activity during reading, which must be explored further in future studies, and accounted for in models of the neurophysiology of reading.

Adult↗
PubMed2007

The role of morphology and short vowelization in reading Arabic among normal and dyslexic readers in grades 3, 6, 9, and 12.

This study was an investigation of several Arabic reading measures among dyslexics and normal Arabic readers across different ages (grades 3, 6, 9, and 12): the role of morphology, short vowelization (phonological and syntactic skills), spelling, reading isolated words, and reading comprehension. The results of the one-way ANOVAs indicated clear differences between the dyslexic readers and the normal readers on all reading measures. However, the stepwise regression analysis revealed consistent orthographic results: morphology (identification and/or production) and spelling were generally the most powerful predictors of both reading accuracy and reading comprehension among dyslexic and normal readers across these different age groups. The results are discussed in terms of the characteristics of the Arabic orthography and the heavy reliance of readers at all levels and ages on orthographic factors in reading.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1990

Eye movements during repeated reading of a text.

The facilitation of eye movements was studied in two experiments involving a repeated reading paradigm. A text was read three times. Initial reading was immediately followed by the first repetition; the second repetition took place one week later. Recall task instructions were used to encourage a detailed reading of the text. The data were analysed sentence by sentence from the 'first pass' readings not including returns to earlier test locations. A general facilitation for all eye movement parameters was found. Repetition decreased the summed fixation time, the average fixation duration, the number of progressive fixations, and the number of regressions. Additionally, repetition increased saccade lengths. Experiment 2 further qualified the general facilitory effect. The middle section of the text, being the most dense of information, was devoted the most visual attention by the readers. Moreover, it was also found to produce the largest degree of facilitation due to repetition. This was true with all other eye movement parameters except saccade length and average fixation duration. Average fixation durations were longer in the beginning of a text than in the end. This was true in all the three readings. Similarly, for each reading, highly important sentences received more visual attention than unimportant sentences.

Adult↗
PubMed1978

Reading attainment in hearing-impaired children: a comparison of higher and lower achievers.

The purpose of the present research is to study hearing-impaired children with higher and lower reading attainment in order to suggest why some of these choldren achieve greater competency than others. Sixteen children, ages 8 to 17, from two oral schools for the hearing-impaired in Britain, were given two tests of reading comprehension. These revealed (1) marked differences in the reading levels of the children, and (2) a relationship between the test scores and what school the children attended. Differences were also found when the children's oral language use and reading comprehension levels were compared. Oral language use was shown to be an important skill related to attainment in reading. Differences in the nature of early language experiences of children in the two schools were said to be partly responsible for the disparity in the children's oral language ability and the differences in their later ability to read. Some insights are offered to explain how one school has fostered the development of good reading skills where other schools have failed to do so.

Achievement↗
PubMed1986

Phrasing in the speech and reading of the hearing impaired.

The study reported here explored a partial explanation for the fourth-grade "bottleneck" in literacy advancement by hearing-impaired students. Speech samples from 21 deaf subjects were rated for degree of evident phrasal quality. Likewise, reading comprehension scores for each student were obtained under four reading conditions: reading in whole sentences, in phrases, in fragmented word groups, and in single words. Degree of rated speech phrasality was found to relate significantly and positively to correct recall answers to questions based upon silent reading of passages typed in meaningful word groups (but not when the passages were typed in whole sentences, fragmented word groups, or in single words). The results were taken to suggest that--whereas staccato-speaking deaf students may lack a sense of the phrase altogether--phrasal-speaking deaf youngsters fail to independently apply their phrase sense in the normal reading situation. Thus, both types of deaf youngsters have difficulty affecting the transition to phrase reading that is common for hearing students at or about the fourth-grade level. Finally, I argue that this phrase sense can be instilled in hearing-impaired students and that they can be trained to use it in reading.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1987

Strategic hand use preferences and hemispheric specialization in tactual reading: impact of the demands of perceptual encoding.

Four reading-related, information-processing tasks were administered to right-handed blind readers of braille who differed in level of reading skill and in preference for using the right hand or the left hand when required to read text with just one hand. The tasks were letter identification, same-different matching of letters that differed in tactual similarity, short-term memory for lists of words that varied in tactual and phonological similarity, and paragraph reading with and without a concurrent memory load of digits. The results showed interactions between hand preference and the hand that was actually used to read the stimulus materials, such that left preferrers were significantly faster and more accurate with their left hands than with their right hands whereas right preferrers were slightly but usually not significantly faster with their right hands than with their left hands. In all cases, the absolute magnitude of the left-hand advantage among left preferrers was substantially larger than the right-hand advantage among right preferrers. The results suggest that encoding strategies for dealing with braille are reflected in hand preference and that such strategies operate to modify an underlying but somewhat plastic superiority of the right hemisphere for dealing with the perceptual requirements of tactual reading. These requirements are not the same as those of visual reading, leading to some differences in patterns of hemispheric specialization between readers of braille and readers of print.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

The relationship between reading ability and lateralized lexical decision.

Although lexical decision remains one of the most extensively studied cognitive tasks, very little is known about its relationship to broader linguistic performance such as reading ability. In a correlational study, several aspects of lateralized lexical decision performance were related to vocabulary and reading comprehension measures, as assessed using the Nelson-Denny Reading Test. This lateralized lexical decision task has been previously shown to demonstrate (1) independent contributions from both hemispheres, as well as (2) interhemispheric interactions during word recognition. Lexical decision performance showed strong relationships with both reading measures. Specifically, vocabulary performance correlated significantly with left visual field (LVF) word accuracy and LVF non-word latency, both measures of right hemisphere performance. There were also significant, though somewhat weaker, correlations between reading comprehension and RVF non-word latency. Lexicality priming, a measure of interhemispheric communication during lexical decision, was also correlated with reading comprehension. These results suggest that hemispheric interaction during word recognition is common, and that lexical processing contribution from the right hemisphere, something commonly taken as minor and inconsequential, can lead to significant performance benefits and to individual differences in reading.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Influence of auditory-verbal, visual-verbal, visual, and visual-visual processing speed on reading and spelling at the end of Grade 1.

This study examined cognitive processing speed through four modalities (auditory-verbal, visual-verbal, visual, and visual-visual) at the end of Grade 1 and how it influences reading and spelling. The subjects were 124 French-speaking children, selected for their contrasting performance on reading and spelling tasks. The children in the first group (N=69) were average readers; the second group of children (N=55) performed worse or much worse on all reading and spelling tasks. The experimental design consisted of a set of 10 tasks administered in two sessions. The major findings reveal that: (1) the children with reading difficulties displayed low and slow performance on most cognitive tasks, whatever the modality; (2) auditory-verbal and visual-verbal processing speed significantly predicted written language, which was not the case with the visual modalities; and (3) that visual problems did not appear to be a potential cause of reading problems in most delayed readers. The findings also confirm the independence of phonological and naming-speed skills in reading development and reading impairment.

Age Factors↗
PubMed2004

Impaired oral reading in two atypical dyslexics: a comparison with a computational lexical-analogy model.

A computational model of reading was developed based upon the notion that the structural relationship between orthography and phonology is of greater importance than the dimension of semantics for the reading aloud of single words. Degradation of this model successfully simulated the reading performance of two patients with atypical acquired dyslexia. The first patient CAV, studied and described in the literature by Warrington in 1981, presented with unusual concrete word dyslexia, i.e., he had a category-specific reading deficit for concrete words compared with abstract words. The second patient BG is a phonological dyslexic who, although displaying a strong concreteness effect (concrete words read better than abstract words), was able to read functors individually perfectly well, a pattern that is rarely if ever seen. The computational model was used to generate a set of words for which it was predicted that BG would show no concreteness effect. The results of BG's reading of these words were consistent with this prediction, thereby providing greater support for the validity of the model. It is concluded that a computational approach that attempts not only to reproduce the core symptoms of the major varieties of acquired dyslexia but also to simulate clinical data from specific patients has much to contribute to the understanding of cognitive deficits and to the design of effective rehabilitation strategies.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

The effect of word length on lexical decision in dyslexic and normal reading children.

In the present study, the effect of word length on lexical decision in dyslexic and normal reading children was investigated. Dyslexics of 10-years old, chronological age controls, and reading age controls read words and pseudowords consisting of 3 to 6 letters in a lexical decision task. Length effects were much stronger in dyslexics and reading age controls than in chronological age controls. These results support the contention that dyslexics continue to rely on a predominantly sub-lexical reading procedure, whereas for normal readers the contribution of a lexical reading procedure increases. The relevance of the findings for current computational models of reading is discussed.

Case-Control Studies↗
PubMed2006

Polysyllabic pseudo-word processing in reading and lexical decision: converging evidence from behavioral data, connectionist simulations and functional MRI.

The cognitive mechanisms involved in polysyllabic pseudo-word processing -- and their neurobiological correlates -- were studied through the analysis of length effects on French words and pseudo-words in reading and lexical decision. Connectionist simulations conducted on the ACV98 network paralleled the behavioral data in showing a strong length effect on naming latencies for pseudo-words only and the absence of length effect for both words and pseudo-words in lexical decision. Length effects in reading were characterized at the neurobiological level by a significant and specific activity increase for pseudo-words as compared to words in the right lingual gyrus (BA 19), the left superior parietal lobule and precuneus (BA7), the left middle temporal gyrus (BA21) and the left cerebellum. The behavioral results suggest that polysyllabic pseudo-word reading mainly relies on an analytic procedure. At the biological level, additional activations in visual and visual attentional brain areas during long pseudo-word reading emphasize the role of visual and visual attentional processes in pseudo-word reading. The present findings place important constraints on theories of reading in suggesting the involvement of a serial mechanism based on visual attentional processing in pseudo-word reading.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Choosing sides: lateralization in line trisection and quadrisection as a function of reading direction and handedness.

It might be intuited that a person's reading direction will impact linguistic and/or oculomotor tasks. Whether it also influences nonlanguage tasks, and by what means, is less clear. A novel technique to probe this effect is introduced in this paper, and the affirmative results are presented. The line bisection task has been a standard bedside diagnostic technique for assessing hemifield spatial neglect for many years. In recent years, numerous studies have also examined how normal subjects perform on this task. A recent line of study has focused on the reading habits of the subjects and the effect it has on line bisection. Most European languages are read from left to right, and it is thus postulated that readers of those languages will scan a line from left to right. On the other hand, Hebrew is read from right to left. These previous studies have yielded intriguing results about the role that reading direction plays in nonlanguage tasks. The present study utilized two other line partition tasks, line trisection and line quadrisection, and subjects whose principal reading language was either right-to-left or left-to-right. These tasks are ambiguous when used without instructing the subject on which side to perform the line transection. It was found that principal language was correlated with the side on which the subject chose to trisect or quadrisect the line. However, there was no correlation between preferred side and writing hand and there was no significant difference in accuracy between the preferred side and the secondary side. Thus, the preferred side in this nonlanguage task does not seem to be influenced by writing hand or accuracy but rather would seem to depend exclusively upon the earliest legitimate point, as determined by reading direction.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Laparoscopic decision making: impact of preoperative reading and laparoscopic experience.

PURPOSE: A competent laparoscopic surgeon requires good technical skills and good surgical judgment. The assessment of technical skills using bench models and simulators has been well studied. However, there has been a paucity of studies examining the cognitive aspects of surgery. We developed a novel tool to assess the procedural knowledge and higher level decision making required for successful laparoscopic nephrectomy. We assessed the effect of laparoscopic experience and the effect of self-preparation or preoperative reading on surgical decision making abilities using a novel assessment tool and methodology. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 17 novice and advanced urology residents were randomized to preoperative reading or no preoperative reading. Subjects viewed laparoscopic nephrectomy clips and verbalized their thought processes. Their performance was transcribed and blindly rated using a new surgical decision making rating scale. RESULTS: The correlation with overall surgical decision making rating scale score was good for years of training and moderate for the number of laparoscopic cases performed (r = 0.7 and 0.54, respectively, p < 0.05). Preoperative reading did not have a significant impact on the overall surgical decision making rating scale score (p > 0.05). However, when stratified by laparoscopic experience level (fewer than 10 cases), preoperative reading had a significant impact on the performance of novices with respect to the knowledge components of the procedure but not the judgment domain (each p > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Overall preoperative reading did not improve the surgical decision making rating scale. Novice procedural knowledge benefited from preoperative reading but not surgical judgment. The surgical decision making rating scale appears promising and it may have future implications for assessing surgical competency.

Clinical Competence↗
PubMed2005

Imaging brain connectivity in children with diverse reading ability.

Reading is a complex cognitive skill that requires the coordination of multiple brain regions. Although functional neuroimaging studies highlight the cortical brain regions associated with a specific cognitive task like reading, they do not directly address the underlying neural connections necessary for efficient performance of this task. Adults with reading disability have demonstrated lower regional white matter connectivity, but it is not known whether this relationship between neuronal wiring and reading performance also holds in younger readers. Using diffusion tensor magnetic resonance imaging (DTI) that highlights the structural integrity of the brain wiring, we show that regional brain connectivity in the left temporo-parietal white matter correlates with a wide range of reading ability in children as young as 8-12 years old. Diffusion tensor tractography suggests that the posterior limb of the internal capsule is consistent with the location of the largest cluster of correlation between reading ability (Word Identification subtest) and fractional anisotropy. The maturation of the white matter may play a key role in the development of cognitive processes such as reading.

Anisotropy↗