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PubMed2005

Comparative study of lectin reactivity in the vomeronasal organ of human and nonhuman primates.

The main and accessory olfactory systems of certain mammals (e.g., rodents, ungulates, and carnivores) have been investigated using lectin histochemistry to probe for sugar residues that may reflect physiological aspects of signal transduction or development. Morphologically, the vomeronasal organs (VNOs) of strepsirrhine primates (lemurs and lorises) are typical of functional VNOs in other mammals, whereas in humans and chimpanzees the VNOs appear vestigial. However, the human VNO is considered functional by some authors. To elucidate the cellular nature of the VNO in human and chimpanzees, a panel of six lectins (Con-A, ECL, PNA, RCA, s-WGA, and UEA-1) was applied to the VNO in eight species of primates, including humans and chimpanzees. The results indicated that there were few, if any, lectin-reactive cells in the human or chimpanzee VNO that resembled those seen in the vomeronasal neuroepithelium in other primates. The overall pattern of lectin reactivity in the human and chimpanzee VNO is unlike that seen in mammals with chemosensory VNOs, suggesting that the VNO of these hominoids does not function similarly to that of other primates.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Spontaneous and augmented growth of axons in the primate spinal cord: effects of local injury and nerve growth factor-secreting cell grafts.

Little is known about molecular and cellular responses to spinal cord injury in primates. In this study, the normal milieu of the primate spinal cord was disturbed by multiple needle penetrations and cell injections in the mid-thoracic spinal cord; subsequent effects on local axons and expression of extracellular matrix (ECM) molecules were examined, together with effects of cellular delivery of nerve growth factor (NGF) to the injured region. Four adult rhesus monkeys each received injections of two grafts of autologous fibroblasts genetically modified to secrete human NGF, and, in control injection sites, two separate grafts of autologous fibroblasts transduced to express the reporter gene, beta-galactosidase. Three months later, Schwann cells extensively infiltrated the region of localized injury and penetrated both NGF and control fibroblast grafts. Marked upregulation of several ECM molecules occurred, including chondroitin and heparan sulfate proteoglycans and type IV collagen, in or adjacent to all injection sites. Schwann cells were an apparent source of some ECM expression. Spinal cord sensory axons and putative coerulospinal axons extended into both graft types, but they penetrated NGF grafts to a significantly greater extent. Many of these axons expressed the cell adhesion molecule L1. Thus, extensive cellular and molecular changes occur at sites of localized primate spinal cord injury and grafting, attributable in part to migrating Schwann cells, and are accompanied by spontaneous axonal plasticity. These molecular and cellular events closely resemble those observed in the rodent spinal cord after injury. Furthermore, as in rodent studies, cellular delivery of a trophic factor significantly augments axonal plasticity in the primate spinal cord.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Distribution of mGluR1alpha and mGluR5 immunolabeling in primate prefrontal cortex.

Metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) mediate important modulatory glutamatergic influences throughout the brain. However, the specific localization and functions of group I mGluR subtypes (mGluR1alpha and mGluR5) in cortical neurotransmission are not well known, particularly in primates. To address this issue, we used immunoelectron microscopy to compare the subcellular localizations of mGluR1alpha and mGluR5 in the prefrontal cortex of macaque monkeys. Both receptor subtypes were found in a variety of subcellular compartments, including spines, dendrites, preterminal axons, axon terminals, and glia; however, quantitative differences were found in the relative abundance of labeled elements for each receptor. The mGluR1alpha-immunoreactive (-IR) elements were overwhelmingly the spines and dendrites, with labeled terminals, axons, and glia seen more rarely. The mGluR5-IR elements were also mostly spines and dendrites, but the proportion of labeled unmyelinated axons, terminals, and glia was higher than for mGluR1alpha-IR elements. Double labeling with SMI-32 and parvalbumin confirmed that both receptors were found in pyramidal cell and interneuron dendrites. The localization of mGluR1alpha to pyramidal cells in primate cortex contrasts with reports that mGluR1alpha is found almost exclusively in interneurons in rodent cortex. By using double labeling, we found no evidence for mGluR1alpha or mGluR5 in dopaminergic afferents to prefrontal cortex. The data presented here provide an anatomical substrate for a differential role of mGluR1alpha and mGluR5 in post-and presynaptic actions of glutamate in primate prefrontal cortex. They further suggest differences in the cortical distribution of group I mGluRs between primates and rodents.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Short and mid-wavelength cone distribution in a nocturnal Strepsirrhine primate (Microcebus murinus).

Strepsirrhines are of considerable interest for understanding the evolution of cone photoreceptors because they represent the most ancestral living primates. The retina of nocturnal Strepsirrhines is reported to contain a single population of medium/long wavelength (MW/LW) cones whereas short wavelength (SW) cones are totally absent. The area centralis of nocturnal Strepsirrhines also lacks the degree of central specialization seen in the fovea of diurnal primates. In this study of a nocturnal Strepsirrhine, the gray mouse lemur (Microcebus murinus), we used specific antibodies that recognize SW and MW/LW opsins to determine the presence of different cone subtypes and their distribution in relation to that of rods and ganglion cells. The results are compared to two diurnal Haplorhine species, a New World (Callithrix jacchus) and an Old World (Macaca fascicularis) monkey. In the mouse lemur, both antibodies to MW/LW cone opsin (COS-1 and CERN956) label the same population of cones. A small proportion of SW cones is only stained by the JH455 antiserum whereas the monoclonal OS-2 antibody shows negative staining. These two antibodies label the same SW cone population in other primates. The extracellular matrix of all cones is also labeled by the peanut agglutinin (PNA) lectin. In mouse lemur retinal wholemounts, peak cone density is localized at the area centralis and ranged from 7,500 to 8,000 cones/mm(2). SW cones represent less than 0.2 % of the total cone population and are mainly located in the nasal part of the retina. SW cones show an irregular distribution and densities never exceed 49 cones/mm(2). The distribution of neurons in the ganglion cell layer shows a distinct centroperipheral gradient with a peak of 28,000 cells/mm(2) at the area centralis. Rod distribution shows a centroperipheral gradient with the peak (850,000 rods/mm(2)) including and extending slightly dorsal to the area centralis. The theoretical spatial resolution of the mouse lemur (4.9 cycles/degree) is slightly lower to that of other nocturnal primates. The densities of rods, cones, and ganglion cell layer neurons represent a compromise between spatial resolution and sensitivity for both photopic and scotopic vision.

Animals↗
PubMed2007

Selective enrichment of DJ-1 protein in primate striatal neuronal processes: implications for Parkinson's disease.

Mutations in DJ-1 cause autosomal recessive, early-onset Parkinson's disease (PD). The precise function and distribution of DJ-1 in the central nervous system remain unclear. In this study, we performed a comprehensive analysis of DJ-1 expression in human, monkey, and rat brains with antibodies that recognize distinct, evolutionarily conserved epitopes of DJ-1. We found that DJ-1 displays region-specific neuronal and glial labeling in human and nonhuman primate brain, sharply contrasting with the primarily neuronal expression pattern observed throughout rat brain. Further immunohistochemical analysis of DJ-1 expression in human and nonhuman primate brains showed that DJ-1 protein is expressed in neurons within the substantia nigra pars compacta and striatum, two regions critically involved in PD pathogenesis. Moreover, immunoelectron microscopic analysis revealed a selective enrichment of DJ-1 within primate striatal axons, presynaptic terminals, and dendritic spines with respect to the DJ-1 expression in prefrontal cortex. Together, these findings indicate neuronal and synaptic expression of DJ-1 in primate subcortical brain regions and suggest a physiological role for DJ-1 in the survival and/or function of nigral-striatal neurons.

Aged↗
PubMed1991

Parallel thalamic activation of the first and second somatosensory areas in prosimian primates and tree shrews.

In Tupaia belangeri and Galago senegalensis, microelectrode recordings immediately after ablation of the representation of the forelimb in the midportion of the first somatosensory area, S-I, revealed that all parts of the second somatosensory area, S-II, remained highly responsive to cutaneous stimuli. In this way, prosimian primates, close relatives of simian primates, and tree shrews differ markedly from monkeys in which S-II is deactivated by comparable ablations, and resemble such mammals as cats and rabbits in which S-II also remains highly responsive following ablations in S-I. Thus, it appears that the generalized mammalian condition is that S-I and S-II are independently activated via parallel thalamocortical pathways. A dependence of S-II on serial connections from the thalamus to the S-I region and then to S-II apparently evolved with the advent of anthropoid primates, and may be present only in monkeys and perhaps other higher primates.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Organization of thalamic projections to the ventral striatum in the primate.

Although thalamic projections to the dorsal striatum are well described in primates and other species, little is known about thalamic projections to the ventral or "limbic" striatum in the primate. This study explores the organization of the thalamic projections to the ventral striatum in the primate brain by means of wheat germ agglutinin conjugated to horseradish peroxidase (WGA-HRP) and Lucifer yellow (LY) retrograde tracer techniques. In addition, because functional and connective differences have been described for the core and shell components of the nucleus accumbens in the rat and are thought to be similar in the primate, this study also explores whether these regions of the nucleus accumbens can be distinguished by their thalamic input. Tracer injections are placed in different portions of the ventral striatum, including the medial and lateral regions of the ventral striatum; the central region of the ventral striatum, including the dorsal part of the core of the nucleus accumbens; and the shell region of the nucleus accumbens. Retrogradely labeled neurons are located mainly in the midline nuclear group (anterior and posterior paraventricular, paratenial, rhomboid, and reuniens thalamic nuclei) and in the parafascicular thalamic nucleus. Additional labeled cells are found in other portions of the intralaminar nuclear group as well as in other thalamic nuclei in the ventral, anterior, medial, lateral, and posterior thalamic nuclear groups. The distribution of labeled cells varies depending on the area of the ventral striatum injected. All regions of the ventral striatum receive strong projections from the midline thalamic nuclei and from the parafascicular nucleus. In addition, the medial region of the ventral striatum receives numerous projections from the central superior lateral nucleus, the magnocellular subdivision of the ventral anterior nucleus, and parts of the mediodorsal nucleus. After injection into the lateral region of the ventral striatum, few labeled neurons are seen scattered in nuclei of the intralaminar and ventral thalamic groups and occasional labeled cells in the mediodorsal nucleus. The central region of the ventral striatum, including the dorsal part of the core of the nucleus accumbens, receives a limited projection from the midline thalamic, predominantly from the rhomboid nucleus. It receives much smaller projections from the central medial nucleus and the ventral, anterior, and medial thalamic groups. The shell of the nucleus accumbens receives the most limited projection from the thalamus and is innervated almost exclusively by the midline thalamic nuclei and the central medial and parafascicular nuclei. The shell is distinguished from the rest of the ventral striatum in that it receives the fewest projections from the ventral, anterior, medial, and lateral thalamic nuclei.

Animals↗
PubMed1988

Major histocompatibility complex class I molecules of nonhuman primates.

The usefulness of nonhuman primates in immunologically relevant research has until now been limited by difficulties in characterizing the major histocompatibility (MHC) gene products of these species. We have now biochemically characterized the MHC-encoded class I molecules from four different species of nonhuman primates using antibodies directed against human MHC class I structures and one-dimensional isoelectric focusing (1-D IEF). We demonstrated the functional relevancy of this technique of MHC typing by generating virus-specific cytotoxic T cells and assaying their cytotoxic activity against a panel of virus-transformed cells that expressed the same or differing class I structures. Only virus-infected cell lines expressing MHC class I antigens identical to those of the cytotoxic T lymphocyte population were lysed. This simple method of MHC class I typing using 1-D IEF will be useful in immunological research involving nonhuman primates and in nonhuman primate colony management.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

Cloning and sequences of primate CD4 molecules: diversity of the cellular receptor for simian immunodeficiency virus/human immunodeficiency virus.

To study the interaction between the primate lentiviruses simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and the CD4 receptor we have cloned and sequenced the CD4 molecule from six non-human primate species: African green monkeys (three subspecies: sabeus, pytherethrus, aethiops), sooty mangabeys, patas monkeys, chimpanzees, rhesus macaques, and pig-tail macaques. Molecular cDNA clones representing CD4 mRNA were generated from total RNA from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification including reverse transcriptase in initial reactions followed by two rounds of nested amplifications. Primer sequences were selected from regions conserved among human and rodent CD4 genes. Alignments of deduced amino acid sequences revealed interesting findings. First, all of the primate CD4 molecules were about 90% identical to the human CD4 sequence except the chimpanzee (98%). Second, two macaques or two African green monkey subspecies were as distanly related as the human versus chimpanzee sequences. Third, relatedness of CD4 sequences could not be predicted on the basis of geographic origin (Asian vs. African). Finally, upon sequencing several clones from individual monkeys, a low degree of sequence variation (nucleotide substitutions, deletions, and insertions) was found within the same animal, and in case of sooty mangabeys two distict populations of CD4 molecules were present within three of four individuals. The distinguishing features involved eight amino acid changes, including a single lysine deletion relative to a primate consensus sequence in the first complementary-determing region of V1J1. These two CD4 populations were present also at the genomic DNA level and may arrive from the two chromosomal alleles, suggesting the existence of distinct sooty mangabey subspecies. Overall, the V1J1 and to a lesser extent V2J2 were the most variable regions among the sequences examined. By construction and expression in mammalian cell lines of CD4 chimeras in which these regions of the human CD4 were replaced by those of the African green monkey and pig-tail macaques, a higher molecular mass of the CD4 chimeras were obtained in sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis suggesting that the additional N-linked glycosylation sites present in these monkey CD4 are also used.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed2003

Efficient gene transfer of a simian immuno-deficiency viral vector into cardiomyocytes derived from primate embryonic stem cells.

BACKGROUND: Embryonic stem (ES) cells continually proliferate and can generate large numbers of differentiated cells. Genetic manipulation of transplantable cells derived from primate ES cells offers considerable potential for development research and regenerative cell therapy. However, protocols for efficient gene transfer into primate ES-cell-derived cells have not yet been established. METHODS: Spontaneously contracting areas were derived from cynomolgus monkey ES cells. Features of cardiomyocytes in the area were analyzed according to gene expression (RT-PCR), morphology (immunostaining and electron microscopy), and function (intracellular calcium transience). Beating cells were transduced using a simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) vector expressing enhanced green fluorescence protein (EGFP), then transplanted into ischemic rat myocardium. RESULTS: Beating cells derived from monkey ES cells displayed gene expression, ultrastructural and functional properties of early-stage cardiomyocytes. Highly efficient (97% cardiac phenotype) and stable transduction of these ES-cell-derived cardiomyocytes was achieved using SIV vector without altering contractile function. In addition, transduced cardiomyocytes survived in the myocardium of a rat myocardial infarction model. CONCLUSIONS: A lentiviral vector system based on SIV represents a useful vehicle for genetic modification of cardiomyocytes derived from primate ES cells, and can extend the application of primate ES cells to gene therapy.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Efficient method for expressing transgenes in nonhuman primate embryos using a stable episomal vector.

Transgenesis in the nonhuman primate can enhance the study of human biology by providing animal models for the study of primate-specific physiology, pathophysiology, and embryonic development. Progress with this technology has been hindered by the inherent inefficiency of transgenesis, transgene silencing, and practical restrictions on the production of sufficient pronuclear stage nonhuman primate zygotes. We have developed a novel technique using an Epstein Barr virus (EBV)-based episomal vector to produce rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) embryos expressing a transgene. Plasmid DNA containing the latent origin of replication, oriP, and Epstein Barr Nuclear Antigen-1 (EBNA-1) of EBV, as well as a CMV IE-enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) expression cassette, was introduced into rhesus embryos by direct pronuclear microinjection. We detected eGFP in early cleavage stage embryos (4-8 cell) and throughout the duration of culture (day 8-9 blastocysts) by epifluorescent microscopy. A 50% transduction rate was obtained with the EBV-based vector. Microinjected embryos expressed eGFP and retained their developmental capacity as evidenced by development to the blastocyst stage. EBV-based vectors present a novel and efficient means of delivering transgenes for the study of the molecular control of primate embryonic development.

Animals↗
PubMed1990

Experimental prostatitis in nonhuman primates: II. Ascending acute prostatitis.

Bacterial prostatitis is a common cause of urinary tract infection in males, but little is known of its pathophysiology. To study this, we developed a nonhuman primate model using a wild-type clinical isolate of Escherichia coli. Primates have a prostatic anatomy that is similar to humans, which makes them ideal as an animal model of this disease. The monkeys had a urethral inoculation of this organism and were then followed with urine, blood, and semen cultures, white blood counts, and renal scans. They were sacrificed at from 10 days to 4 weeks, and their genitourinary tracts histologically examined. The prostatitis paralleled that reported in humans, and we conclude that the infection occurs by the ascending route. The organisms causing the infection in man do so in our primate model, and the histologic change is also the same. Thus, the primate model holds promise for studies to help us understand this disease.

Acute Disease↗
PubMed1990

Pargyline-sensitive selective accumulation of a radiolabeled MPTP analog in the primate cerebral cortex and basal ganglia.

The distribution of radioiodinated N-methyl-4-(4-hydroxy-3-iodobenzyl)-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MHTP), an analog of the reportedly nontoxic N-methyl-4-benzyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine, (4-homo-MPTP), has been studied in the primate. [123I]MHTP-derived radioactivity exhibited a progressive accumulation and prolonged retention within the primate eye. Following iv injection, [123I]MHTP rapidly accumulated within the primate brain and was subsequently oxidized to a radiolabeled metabolite. The half-life of [123I]MHTP-derived radioactivity within the primate brain was 50 min. The highest concentrations of radioactivity were found in the caudate-putamen and the frontal, temporal and cingulate cortices; the substantia nigra and inferior olivary nucleus were labeled with medium intensity. Very low concentrations of radiolabel were detected in the cerebellum and white matter. Selective accumulation of [125I]MHTP-derived radioactivity within these structures was blocked by pretreatment with pargyline, suggesting that monoamine oxidase B is involved in the bioactivation of radioiodinated MHTP.

1-Methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine↗
PubMed1992

Sigma receptors are associated with cortical limbic areas in the primate brain.

Putative sigma receptors are a current target for antipsychotic drug development. Novel antipsychotic agents which possess selective and high affinity for sigma binding sites may serve as an alternative to the principal neuroleptic drugs currently in clinical use which mediate extrapyramidal side effects and dyskinesias through their blockade of dopamine receptors. We have used in vitro autoradiography to localize putative sigma receptors labelled with (+)-[3H]-3-(3-hydroxyphenyl)-N-(1-propyl)piperidine [(+)-[3H]-3-PPP] in the brain of the rhesus macaque. The binding characteristics of (+)-[3H]-3-PPP in the primate brain were comparable to those previously described in the rodent. Saturation analysis demonstrated a single class of sites in cerebellar and hippocampal membranes with a Kd value of 28 nM. Sigma receptors labeled with (+)-[3H]-3-PPP in the primate brain displayed the appropriate rank order of potency and stereoselectivity in competition binding assays. Haloperidol displaced (+)-[3H]-3-PPP binding in the low nanomolar range, and the (+) isomer of pentazocine was 50-fold more potent than (-) pentazocine. Computerized densitometric analysis of the autoradiograms demonstrated a striking enrichment of sigma binding sites over the paralimbic belt cortices, including the orbitofrontal, cingulate, insular, parahippocampal, and temporopolar gyri. Peak densities of sigma receptors were seen over the medial and central nuclei of the amygdala and were widely distributed within the hippocampal formation. Sigma binding sites densities were elevated over the suprachiasmatic and supraoptic nuclei of the hypothalamus. Moderate sigma receptor densities were observed over the ventromedial sectors of the caudate and the putamen. Sigma receptors were also elevated over autonomic relay nuclei of the brainstem, including the nucleus of the solitary tract and the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus. The distribution of sigma receptors in the primate brain suggests that the paralimbic belt cortices, amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and autonomic relay nuclei of the brainstem may be interrelated by a topographic chemical linkage. The autoradiographic visualization of sigma receptor distributions in the primate brain provides further support for a role of sigma receptor mechanisms in the functions of the limbic system.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

In vivo assessment of basal and drug-induced dopamine release in cortical and subcortical regions of the anesthetized primate.

There is an acute interest in studying the functional characteristics of dopamine systems in the cortex of primates. In particular, the prefrontal cortical dopamine projections have received a great deal of attention. This system is essential for proper functioning of the prefrontal cortex, and dysfunction within the system may be involved in some psychiatric and neurological illnesses. In vivo assessments of cortical dopamine in the primate have been scarce. This has been due, in part, to technical difficulties associated with these studies and with quantifying the relatively low levels of dopamine found in cortical regions. In the present study, intracerebral microdialysis was utilized to assess the extracellular concentration of dopamine in cortical and subcortical areas of the pentobarbital-anesthetized rhesus monkey. Basal extracellular dopamine levels were consistently detected in the medial prefrontal cortex, premotor cortex, and caudate-putamen. The basal extracellular concentration of dopamine in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex was reliably detected in 1 of 4 animals. Intravenous administration of amphetamine (1 mg/kg) enhanced extracellular dopamine levels in the caudate-putamen area by more than 20-fold. In cortical areas, amphetamine's effect was less profound: An increase of 400-500 percent over basal extracellular dopamine levels was observed in each region. These studies demonstrate the feasibility of microdialysis for detecting extracellular fluxes of dopamine in the cortex of nonhuman primates. They further provide direct evidence that the dopamine released within the prefrontal cortex and the premotor cortex of nonhuman primates responds to pharmacological manipulation.

Amphetamine↗
PubMed2000

Geophagy among primates: adaptive significance and ecological consequences.

We review geophagy, or soil ingestion, in primates. This behaviour is widespread and is presumed to be important to health and nutrition. Primates may engage in geophagy for one or a combination of reasons. Here we present, and make a preliminary assessment of, six nonexclusive hypotheses that may contribute to the prevalence of geophagy. Four hypotheses relate to geophagy in alleviating gastrointestinal disorders or upsets: (1) soils adsorb toxins such as phenolics and secondary metabolites; (2) soil ingestion has an antacid action and adjusts the gut pH; (3) soils act as an antidiarrhoeal agent; and (4) soils counteract the effects of endoparasites. Two hypotheses pertain to geophagy in supplementing minerals and/or elements: (5) soils supplement nutrient-poor diets and (6) soils provide extra iron at high altitudes. In addition to these hypotheses, geophagy may satiate olfactory senses, serve as a famine food and finally may have no function at all. We draw together a large body of information from various sources to assess these hypotheses and suggest some tests to understand the function of geophagy. Our review suggests that primates engage in geophagy for a number of reasons that are nonexclusive. We conclude that mineral supplementation, adsorption of toxins, treatment of diarrhoea and pH adjustment of the gut seem the most plausible reasons why primates engage in geophagy. Copyright 2000 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1999

Human is a unique species among primates in terms of telomere length.

TRF (terminal restriction fragments) length in various tissues of non-human primates such as Macaca mulatta (rhesus monkey), Macaca fuscata (Japanese monkey), Macaca fascicularis (crab-eating monkey), Pan troglodytes (common chimpanzee), and Pongo pygmaeus (orangutan) was at least 23 kb without exception, which was quite different from that of human somatic tissues (smaller than 10 kb). The distribution pattern of telomerase activity among tissues was similar between human and non-human primates, while the activity level showed some differences such as that strong telomerase activity was observed in gastrointestinal and lymphocytic tissues from non-human primates. The human appears to be a unique species among primates in terms of telomere length.

Aging↗
PubMed2002

The nucleotide sequences of the parathyroid gene in primates (suborder Anthropoidea).

Nucleotide sequences of the parathyroid (PTH) gene of 12 species of primates belonging to suborder Anthropoidea were examined. The PTH gene contains one intron that separates two exons that code the sequence of prepro and PTH, respectively. The intron of the PTH gene in Cebus apella, Callithrix jacchus, and Saguinus oedipus was 102 bp long, whereas a 103-bp intron was observed in the remaining species. Phylogenetic analysis using the nucleotide sequences of PTH revealed that these 12 species of primates of suborder Anthropoidea could be divided into two groups of the infraorder Platyrrhini (C. apella, C. jacchus, and S. oedipus) and the infraorder Catarrhini (Macaca fascicularis, Macaca fuscata, Cercopithecus aethiops, Papio hamadryas, Presbytes obscura, Hylobates lar, Pongo pygmaeus, Pan troglodytes, and Pan paniscus). The latter infraorder could be further subdivided into two subgroups belonging to the superfamily Cercopithecoidea (M. fascicularis, M. fuscata, C. aethiops, P. hamadryas, and P. obscura) and the superfamily Hominoidea (H. lar, P. pygmaeus, P. troglodytes, and P. paniscus). The deduced amino acid sequences of PTH gene between 12 species of nonhuman primates and human revealed no amino acid substitution in mature PTH among orangutans, chimpanzees, and humans. The results indicated that the PTH gene is very conserved among primates, especially between great apes and humans. The apes are the most suitable animals to be used for studying the bone metabolism and applying the knowledge to clinical use in humans.

Amino Acid Sequence↗