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PubMed1977

An interpretation of implicit judgments in chart review.

The effects of methods that are commonly employed to summarize implicit judgments about quality-of-care assessments, based on medical records, are examined. A sample of 250 medical records, from three outpatient clinics in a municipal hospital, was studied. Two, or three, reviewers judged the quality of both the process of care and the outcome of care, as reflected in each medical record; the reviewers were medical school faculty members. Thirty-seven combinations of the data were used to summarize the judgments made on each medical record. These combinations resulted in significant differences in interpretation within each clinic, but there were only insignificant differences in interpretation across the three clinics. Hence, the use of a single method to summarize data may distort the conclusions. These results demonstrate that data often should be summarized by several methods and that measures of association should be used to supplement tests of significance so as to develop a comprehensive understanding of a set of data.

Factor Analysis, Statistical↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Temporal contiguity and contingency judgments: a Pavlovian analogue.

The two experiments reported examine the role of temporal contiguity on judgments of contingency in a human analogue of the Pavlovian task. The data show that the effect of the actual delay on contingency judgment depends on the observer's expectation regarding the delay. For a fixed contingency between the cue and the outcome, ratings of the contingency are higher when the actual delay is congruent with the observer's expectation than when it is incongruent. We argue that our data can be understood within the context of the temporal coding hypothesis.

Association Learning↗
PubMed2000

Is judgment of random time intervals biased and capacity-limited?

Recently, random generation of time intervals has been proposed as a procedure to impair executive processing in a dual-task paradigm without substantial interference with phonological and visuo-spatial working memory resources. A fundamental assumption of this procedure is that humans are able to distinguish time sequences on their degree of randomness. The present study tests this assumption. To this end, non-biased, repetition-biased, alternation-biased sequences and repetitive rhythms were judged under conditions of higher or lower executive load. In Exp. 1, load depended on the presentation speed, while in Exp. 2, a dual-task condition was used with either a concurrent number-copying task or an arithmetic task. It was found that the participants could distinguish repetitive rhythms from more or less random sequences, and that both accuracy of this judgment and latency were affected by the concurrent load. The findings are taken as a first indication that random time judgment is capacity-limited.

Decision Making↗
PubMed2007

Race-based judgments, race-neutral justifications: experimental examination of peremptory use and the Batson challenge procedure.

Practically speaking, the peremptory challenge remained an inviolate jury selection tool in the United States until the Supreme Court's decision in Batson v. Kentucky. 476 U.S. 79 (1986). Batson's prohibition against race-based peremptories was based on two assumptions: (1) a prospective juror's race can bias jury selection judgments; (2) requiring attorneys to justify suspicious peremptories enables judges to determine whether a challenge is, indeed, race-neutral. The present investigation examines these assumptions through an experimental design using three participant populations: college students, advanced law students, and practicing attorneys. Results demonstrate that race does influence peremptory use, but these judgments are typically justified in race-neutral terms that effectively mask the biasing effects of race. The psychological processes underlying these tendencies are discussed, as are practical implications for the legal system.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Hot cognition in investigative judgments: the differential influence of anger and sadness.

The authors predicted that the cognitive appraisal tendencies associated with sadness and anger would exert different influences on investigators' crime-related judgments. Supporting evidence was found in an experiment with 61 experienced criminal investigators. First, when judging the reliability of a witness statement, sad participants relied on their perception of both witness and situational variables, whereas angry participants relied only on their perception of witness variables. This corresponds to the emphasis placed on situational and individual control in the appraisals associated with sadness and anger, respectively. Second, when making judgments of the case, sad participants were sensitive to the consistency of a witness statement with the central hypothesis of the investigation, indicating substantive processing, whereas angry participants were unaffected by statement-hypothesis consistency, indicating heuristic processing. The findings suggest that the process of reliability assessment can be better understood by consulting theories of attribution and information processing.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

"What the patient would have decided": a fundamental problem with the substituted judgment standard.

Decision making for incompetent patients is a much-discussed topic in bioethics. According to one influential decision making standard, the substituted judgment standard, the decision that ought to be made for the incompetent patient is the decision the patient would have made, had he or she been competent. Although the merits of this standard have been extensively debated, some important issues have not been sufficiently explored. One fundamental problem is that the substituted judgment standard, as commonly formulated, is indeterminate in content and thus offers the surrogate little or no guidance. What the standard does not specify is just how competent one should imagine the patient to be, and what else one ought to envision about the patient's hypothetical outlook and the circumstances surrounding his or her decision making. The article discusses this problem of underdetermined decision conditions.

Decision Making↗
PubMed1994

Towards a perspective theory of decision making and judgment.

The notion of perspectives in its literal perceptual sense is assumed to shed light on thinking in general and evaluative processes in decision making and judgments in particular. Three determinants of perspectives in thinking are identified: (a) the subject, i.e., subject orientation, (b) the object, and (c) psychological distance between subject and object. Dependent on the congruence between subject orientation and characteristics of the object different figure-ground relationships are formed. When an inside perspective is adopted (the object is seen as affiliated with the subject) positive features form the ground and negative features are in the background. Conversely, when an outside perspective is adopted (the object is seen as separate from the subject) negative features form the figure and positive features are in the background. A model is outlined for relationships among perspectives, evaluations and external constraints in decision making and judgment. Empirical data from three empirical studies illustrate the validity of the framework described in the paper.

Adult↗
PubMed1983

Metadiagnosis. An epistemologic model of clinical judgment.

For convenience, clinical findings are often artificially forced into finite pigeonholes such as "positive" or "negative." This convention obscures much of the inherent uncertainty in diagnosis and can result in serious misinterpretation of the significance of certain observations. Unhappy past experience with the poor predictive accuracy of electrocardiographic stress testing in asymptomatic patients is one such example. As an aid to understanding the limitations of clinical diagnosis, an epistemologic model of judgment was developed. According to this model, judgments are viewed as existing on three separate dimensional levels, each of which is rigorously defined and unambiguously quantified. The first dimension expresses diagnostic belief in terms of a numeric probability; the second quantifies the degree of confidence in the probability estimate; and the third defines the information that derives from the probability and confidence. The practical clinical relevance of this conceptual model is illustrated by applying it to a common clinical problem: the interpretation of a "positive" electrocardiographic stress test result in an asymptomatic man. This process--termed herein "metadiagnosis"--provides a new perspective by which the art of diagnosis might be made more accurate and explicit.

Coronary Disease↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Similarity, plausibility, and judgments of probability.

Judging the strength of an argument may underlie many reasoning and decision-making tasks. In this article, we focus on "category-based" arguments, in which the premises and conclusion are of the form All members of C have property P, where C is a natural category. An example is "Dobermans have sesamoid bones. Therefore, German shepherds have sesamoid bones." The strength of such an argument is reflected in the judged probability that the conclusion is true given that the premises are true. The processes that mediate such probability judgments depend on whether the predicate is "blank"--an unfamiliar property that does not enter the reasoning process (e.g., "have sesamoid bones")--or "non-blank"--a relatively familiar property that is easier to reason from (e.g., "can bite through wire"). With blank predicates, probability judgments are based on similarity relations between the premise and conclusion categories. With non-blank predicates, probability judgements are based on both similarity relations and the plausibility of premises and conclusion.

Decision Making↗
PubMed1983

Judgments of vocal affect by language-delayed children.

Judgment of vocal affect was studied in 19 language-delayed children and 19 children with normal language. The children responded to utterances spoken in an angry, happy, or sad tone of voice by pointing to a picture of an angry, a happy, or a sad face. The language-delayed children made significantly fewer correct judgments. The normal children judged all three emotions quite accurately, whereas the language-delayed children were very poor in judging sadness and showed a bias for judging all three emotional tones as anger. The language-delayed children tended to improve with age, but age trends in normal children were obscured by near-perfect performance of many children. The practical and theoretical importance of further research was discussed.

Affect↗
PubMed1982

Multimethod study of clinical judgment.

Expert and novice clinicians judged the likelihood of disease alternatives and gave thinking-aloud protocols as they evaluated simulated cases of congenital heart disease. Specific combinations of cues in the patient data were manipulated to create alternate versions of a single case so that the use of critical cues could be identified. Analyses of variance of subjects' disease judgments revealed differences between expert and novice clinicians in their use of critical cues and cue combinations. Analyses of the thinking-aloud protocols revealed that clinicians with different degrees of expertise employed different interpretations of patient data cues as well as qualitatively distinct "lines of reasoning" in reaching clinical judgments.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed1976

Psychophysical judgment: electro-cortical and heart rate correlates of accuracy and uncertainty.

The relationship between perceptual accuracy and physiological response amplitude was investigated in an auditory pitch discrimination experiment. Confidence ratings were obtained from all subjects following each trial. The stimulus set consisted of three tones of different frequencies spaced in a manner to provide both easy and difficult discriminations. Heart rate, EEG and vertical eye movement were recorded throughout the experiment. The results of the experiment indicated that the largest evoked cardiac rate response was elicited by the stimulus which produced the fewest errors in judgment; larger auditory evoked potentials, particularly the late positive component (P300), were associated with the 'easy' stimulus; greater cortical negativity was associated with the difficult stimuli. Eye activity was found to covary with judgmental accuracy; cortical slow wave activity was particularly sensitive to the confidence, or 'uncertainty' parameter. A 'decision tree' model was hypothesized to describe the processing mechanism involved in solving the discrimination problem.

Acoustic Stimulation↗
PubMed2005

Are perceptual judgments dissociated from motor processes?--A prism adaptation study.

When asked to choose which of two chimeric faces composed of 'smiling' and 'neutral' half-faces is happier, healthy adults select the face in which the left half is smiling. Here, we show that this perceptual leftward bias is associated with a bias in eye movements to the same side. However, when we shifted the pattern of eye movements towards the right side by using prismatic lenses, we did not observe a concurrent shift in the perceptual judgments. Therefore, we argue that overt motor responses are not necessary for perceptual judgments. Furthermore, we argue that while prism adaptation influences performance on motor tasks, it cannot influence higher-order representational processes.

Cognition↗
PubMed2006

Implicit action encoding influences personal-trait judgments.

When an observed action (e.g., kicking) is compatible to a to be produced action (e.g., a foot-key response as compared to a finger-key response), then the self-produced action is more fluent, that is, it is more accurate and faster. A series of experiments explore the notion that vision-action compatibility effects can influence personal-trait judgments. It is demonstrated that when an observed individual carries out an action that is compatible with the participants' response, (1) this individual is identified more fluently, and (2) the observed individual's personality is attributed with the properties of the observed action. For example, if it is easier to identify one individual with a foot-response when he is seen kicking a ball, as compared to typing, he is perceived to be more 'sporty'. In contrast, if it is easier to identify one individual with a finger response when he is seen typing as compared to kicking a ball, he is associated with the 'academic' trait. These personal-trait judgment effects can be observed with explicit measures, where participants are asked to rate the sporty/academic nature of the person on a scale. They are also obtained when implicit measures are taken in a priming task, where participants are never explicitly asked to rate the personalities of the individuals. A control experiment rules out that these personal-trait effects are merely due to an association of motor responses (foot, finger) to individuals while identifying them, but that these effects depend on a prior manipulation of vision-action fluency.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Evaluative behavioral judgments and instrumental antisocial behaviors in children and adolescents.

There is a growing body of scientific research that has drawn a distinction between instrumental (or proactive) and reactive forms of aggressive behavior in children and adolescents. Whereas neurocognitive, psychophysiological, and other psychological factors have been shown to distinguish these aggressive subtypes, social cognitive research on alternative types of instrumental antisocial behavior (e.g., stealing, cheating, and illicit substance use) in youth is limited. Research on social information processing and aggression has shown that evaluative behavioral judgments may be of particular importance to understanding instrumental antisocial tendencies. Herein presented is a review of research on social cognition and discernible forms of instrumental antisocial behavior. It is demonstrated that, consistent with social cognitive research on proactive aggression, the relevance of a specific set of evaluative behavioral judgments appears to be common to alternative patterns of instrumental antisocial conduct. Conclusions may have particular importance for (a) research on the development of discernible instrumental antisocial trajectories, (b) clinical intervention, and (c) the formulation of a conceptual model of instrumental antisocial decision-making.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Neural correlates of Chinese word-appropriateness judgment: an MEG study.

To study the neural correlates of Chinese word-appropriateness judgment, we used 2-word phrases and corresponding meaningless pairs produced by replacing the second words (W2) with homophones. Fourteen right-handed healthy adults viewed word pairs randomly presented one word at a time, and judged the lexical appropriateness of the W2 for combining its preceding first word (W1) into a meaningful phrase. We measured magnetoencephalographic (MEG) responses to W1, appropriate W2, and inappropriate W2 stimuli. For each subject, multi-dipole analyses revealed sequential neuromagnetic activations which involved the bilateral visual cortices at approximately 100 milliseconds (ms), the bilateral occipitotemporal regions at approximately 190 ms, and the left temporal lobe at approximately 350 ms (M350) following stimuli. We found that the word appropriateness had no clear effect on the occipitotemporal activation to W2 stimuli, whereas the M350 activation to inappropriate W2 was greater than that to W1 or appropriate W2. In 8 of our subjects, we found an additional activation in the right temporal region, with a smaller amplitude as compared with the left M350. Our results suggest that the M350 activity reflects both lexical and semantic appropriateness assessment. The lateralized M350 strengths may be used to determine the language dominance hemisphere; and additionally, our 2-word contexture judgment paradigm can be applied in further research on the cortical processing of lexicon-semantic information in Chinese speakers.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Visual capture of apparent limb position influences tactile temporal order judgments.

Shore et al. [D.I. Shore, E. Spry, C. Spence, Spatial modulation of tactile temporal order judgments, Perception (submitted for publication)] recently demonstrated that people find it easier to judge which hand is touched first (in a tactile temporal order judgment task) when their hands are placed far apart rather than close together. In the present study, we used a mirror to manipulate the visually perceived distance between participants' hands, while holding the actual (i.e., proprioceptively-specified) distance between them constant. Participants were asked to determine which of two vibrotactile stimuli, one presented to either index finger using the method of constant stimuli, was presented first. Performance was significantly worse (i.e., the JND was larger) when the hands were perceived (due to the mirror reflection) as being close together rather than further apart. These results highlight the critical role that vision plays in influencing the conscious perception of the temporal order of tactile stimuli.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Cortical Activations during judgments about the self and an other person.

Self-related thought and other person related thought have received a great deal of study in recent years, but have seldom been examined in the same experiment. This study used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to compare the neural correlates of judgments of ones own preferences with judgments of another person's preferences. Each participant viewed food names and made one of three decisions: self (whether he or she liked the food); other (whether a specific friend liked the food), or letter (whether there were more than two vowels in the food name). Self and other decisions both activated bilateral medial areas of the frontal and parietal lobes and the bilateral insula in comparison to the letter task. Self activated superior medial parietal areas in comparison to other, whereas other led to greater activation in inferior medial parietal and left lateral frontal areas than self. These results indicate that the neural networks underlying self processing and other person processing may share common neural substrates, particularly regions associated with representation of the body and mental states.

Adult↗