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PubMed2003

The motivational looking glass: how significant others implicitly affect goal appraisals.

Three studies manipulate the accessibility of significant-other representations to explore how these representations may automatically influence how goals are construed and experienced. Study 1 finds that the perceived attainment expectations of a significant other automatically affect participants' own task-goal expectations and their subsequent task performance and persistence. Study 2 finds that the general perceived value that a significant other places in attaining a task goal automatically affects participants' own attainment value appraisals, their task persistence and performance, and the magnitude of their reaction to success and failure feedback. Finally, Study 3 demonstrates that the regulatory focus prescribed by a significant other may automatically affect participants' own regulatory focus with regards to a task goal, with consequences for their cheerfulness-dejection and relaxation-agitation responses to success and failure feedback. The implications for our understanding of social influence and self-regulation are discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

A secure base: responsive support of goal strivings and exploration in adult intimate relationships.

A theoretical framework is proposed for examining the interpersonal processes involved in the support of a relationship partner's goal strivings, personal growth, and exploratory behavior, and for examining consequences of receiving either responsive or unresponsive support in this domain. These processes were examined using both observational and experimental methods. In Phase 1, couples were videotaped as they discussed personal goals for the future. In Phase 2, support behavior was experimentally manipulated to examine immediate effects on the recipient. Results indicated that responsive (nonintrusive) support of a relationship partner's goal strivings and explorations have important implications for the recipient's happiness, self-esteem, and perceived likelihood of achieving specific goals. The importance of research examining this type of support is discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Positive affect as implicit motivator: on the nonconscious operation of behavioral goals.

Recent research has revealed that nonconscious activation of desired behavioral states--or behavioral goals--promotes motivational activity to accomplish these states. Six studies demonstrate that this nonconscious operation of behavioral goals emerges if mental representations of specific behavioral states are associated with positive affect. In an evaluative-conditioning paradigm, unobtrusive linking of behavioral states to positive, as compared with neutral or negative, affect increased participants' wanting to accomplish these states. Furthermore, participants worked harder on tasks that were instrumental in attaining behavioral states when these states were implicitly linked to positive affect, thereby mimicking the effects on motivational behavior of preexisting individual wanting and explicit goal instructions to attain the states. Together, these results suggest that positive affect plays a key role in nonconscious goal pursuit. Implications for behavior-priming research are discussed.

Affect↗
PubMed2005

The structure of goal contents across 15 cultures.

The authors investigated the structure of goal contents in a group of 1,854 undergraduates from 15 cultures around the world. Results suggested that the 11 types of goals the authors assessed were consistently organized in a circumplex fashion across the 15 cultures. The circumplex was well described by positioning 2 primary dimensions underlying the goals: intrinsic (e.g., self-acceptance, affiliation) versus extrinsic (e.g., financial success, image) and self-transcendent (e.g., spirituality) versus physical (e.g., hedonism). The circumplex model of goal contents was also quite similar in both wealthier and poorer nations, although there were some slight cross-cultural variations. The relevance of these results for several theories of motivation and personality are discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

The social-cognitive model of achievement motivation and the 2 x 2 achievement goal framework.

Two studies examined hypotheses drawn from a proposed modification of the social-cognitive model of achievement motivation that centered on the 2 x 2 achievement goal framework. Implicit theories of ability were shown to be direct predictors of performance attainment and intrinsic motivation, and the goals of the 2 x 2 framework were shown to account for these direct relations. Perceived competence was shown to be a direct predictor of achievement goals, not a moderator of relations implicit theory or achievement goal effects. The results highlight the utility of attending to the approach-avoidance distinction in conceptual models of achievement motivation and are fully in line with the hierarchical model of achievement motivation.

Achievement↗
PubMed2006

Self-control in action: implicit dispositions toward goals and away from temptations.

Five studies examined whether, in self-control dilemmas, individuals develop an implicit disposition to approach goals and avoid temptations, psychologically as well as physically. Using a method developed by A. K. Solarz (1960; see also K. L. Duckworth, J. A. Bargh, M. Garcia, & S. Chaiken, 2002), the authors assessed the time for pulling and pushing a lever in response to goal- and temptation-related stimuli (e.g., studying and partying). The results show that individuals offset the influence of tempting activities by automatically avoiding these stimuli (faster pushing responses) and by approaching stimuli related to an overarching goal (faster pulling responses). These implicit self-control dispositions varied as a function of the magnitude of the self-control conflict, itself defined by how strongly individuals were attracted to temptations and held the longer term goal. These dispositions were further shown to play a role in successful self-control.

Automatism↗
PubMed2002

The goals of psychiatric rehabilitation: an ethical analysis.

This study addressed the question under what conditions ought client-centered psychiatric rehabilitation work towards goals set by its clients. This was done by means of an ethical analysis of goal setting in psychiatric rehabilitation, using standard ethical principles of health care and a case study for illustration. The analysis demonstrated that client-centered psychiatric rehabilitation ought to work towards goals set by its clients under the conditions that they not involve serious danger and are not induced by severe mental impairment. When these conditions are not fulfilled, it may be most helpful to engage the clients in critical dialogue so as to reach an agreement regarding the setting of goals for their psychiatric rehabilitation. Special ways of engaging clients with severe mental impairments in such dialogue may have to be explored.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

[Expectations, concerns and therapeutic goals of patients at the beginning of oncologic rehabilitation].

The study focuses on the outcome of oncological rehabilitation in the inpatient setting. An oncology-specific questionnaire for the measurement of individual therapy goals was developed within the perspective of a goal-oriented evaluation concept. The article focuses on the first time-point of measurement (beginning of the rehabilitation measure) within a longitudinal study. 407 patients were studied either directly following their initial hospital treatment or at a later time-point during the course of the cancer illness. The presentation of the results include firstly a description and analysis of the patients' medical and psychosocial situation (including variables such as the perceived state of health and quality of life), as well as individual rehabilitation goals formulated by the patients themselves. Moreover, an analysis is performed of the expectations, hopes and fears of patients at the beginning of an oncological rehabilitation measure in the inpatient setting. Subgroup analyses focus on the influence of sociodemographic and emotional variables on the patients' expectations and goals.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Changes in clinically relevant goals and therapy outcome: a study with inpatients undergoing cognitive behavioral therapy].

According to the consistency theory clinically relevant goals, as explicated by Grosse Holtforth and Grawe, play a prominent role in the development, maintenance and therapy of psychological disorders. Thus effective psychotherapies should "normalize" the subjective importance of these goals. These changes should be positively associated with the success of psychotherapy. To test these assumptions, clinically relevant goals of 64 inpatients undergoing cognitive behavioral therapy were assessed by the Inventory of Approach and Avoidance Goals (German: Fragebogen zur Analyse motivationaler Schemata, FAMOS) before and after therapy. Results show effects of normalization, as expected, especially on scales associated with psychopathology in former studies.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy↗
PubMed1975

Slope of gradients for performance as a function of achievement motive, goal distance in time, and future time orientation.

It was predicted that (a) individuals high in motivation to approach success and low in motivation to avoid failure (approach-oriented) would increase their performance and (b) those with the opposite motivation constellation (avoidance-oriented) would decrease their amount of performance as a distant future achievement task (goal) approached in time. Furhter, it was assumed that individuals high in future time orientation (FTO) would perceive a distant future event (goal) as nearer in time than those who are low in FTO. This implies the hypotheses that (c) the slope of the positive goal gradient is steeper for those of the approach-oriented individuals who are low in FTO as compared with those who are high in FTO, and (d) the slope of the negative goal gradient is steeper for those of the avodiance-oriented individuals who are low in FTO as compared with those who are high in FTO. The results, based on 379 boys and girls (about 12 years old), supported hypotheses a and d, and left also some indications that supported hypotheses b and c.

Achievement↗
PubMed2002

Personal goals and depression among Vietnamese American and European American young adults: a mediational analysis.

The authors report preliminary findings supporting the utility of the self-concordance model (K. M. Sheldon & A. J. Elliot, 1999) as an alternative approach to studying depression among Vietnamese American (N = 121) and European American (N = 155) college students. The participants completed measures of personal goals, goal self-concordance, and depression. Compared with the European American participants, the Vietnamese American participants reported higher levels of depression and lower levels of goal self-concordance. According to mediational analyses, ethnicity no longer accounted for significant variance in depression after the authors statistically controlled for goal self-concordance.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Relationship between achievement goal orientations and the perceived purposes of playing rugby union for professional and amateur players.

The recent professionalization of rugby union makes it an excellent achievement context in which to examine the relationship between achievement goal orientations and the perceived purposes of sport as a function of competitive standard. During the 1996-97 season, 73 professional and 106 amateur rugby players in England completed a series of questionnaires assessing their achievement goal orientations, beliefs about the purposes of rugby and demographic information. The results of a canonical correlation analysis revealed a conceptually coherent relationship between achievement goal orientations and purposes of rugby. Specifically, a high ego/moderate task orientation was positively related to fitness, aggression and financial remuneration as significant purposes of rugby. Professional players scored higher on those purposes of rugby related to aggression, financial remuneration and fitness, but lower on sportspersonship than amateur players. Professional players also reported higher task and ego goal orientations than amateur players. The findings are discussed in terms of the differences in lifestyle and motivation of professional and amateur rugby union players.

Achievement↗
PubMed2005

Cognitive rehabilitation after severe traumatic brain injury: a pilot programme of goal planning and outdoor adventure course participation.

PRIMARY OBJECTIVE: To describe and evaluate a pilot community based rehabilitation programme for severe brain injury. RESEARCH DESIGN: A prospective repeated-measures design with a single convenience sample was conducted. METHODS AND PROCEDURES: Eleven participants with a history of severe brain injury completed the programme, which featured an outdoor adventure course, skill development and goal-based learning. In the first stage, practical activities facilitated the development of social skills, group cohesiveness and community integration. The second stage was a 9-day outdoor adventure course, which included physically challenging activities such as camping, bushwalking, abseiling, caving and high rope work. The third stage encouraged individuals to work on the personal goals they had developed. MAIN OUTCOMES AND RESULTS: Over 80% of stated goals were achieved; suggesting that such a programme may be effective in enabling clients to attain specified goals. CONCLUSIONS: The programme shows promise as a form of community rehabilitation.

Activities of Daily Living↗
PubMed1992

The role of value orientations in curricular decision making: a rationale for teachers' goals and expectations.

This research examined the role of value orientations in curricular decision making from the perspective of high school physical education teachers and students. Educational value orientations served as the theoretical base for the research. Teachers who exhibited one of two paired orientations, disciplinary mastery/learning process (DM/LP) or ecological integration/social reconstruction (EI/SR), were interviewed to examine the extent to which their value orientations influenced their stated (a) goals for student learning, and (b) expectations for academic performance and behavior. Students were also interviewed to investigate the extent to which they acknowledged these goals and expectations. Data were analyzed using constant comparison. Results suggested that goals and expectations of DM/LP and EI/SR teachers were distinctly different and that comments from students in the EI/SR teachers' classes did not reflect their teachers' goals and expectations. Dynamical system theory was used to conceptualize value orientations as attractors within the educational ecosystem. Teachers working from weak EI/SR value attractors may be limited by learner, instructional, and contextual constraints.

Curriculum↗
PubMed2002

Exerted effort and performance in climbing among boys: the influence of achievement goals, perceived ability, and task difficulty.

In achievement contexts such as sport, achievement goal theory assumes that an individual's major concern is to demonstrate competence. However, competence may be expressed in two ways: as task and ego involvement (Nicholls, 1989). Seventy-eight boys (M age = 13.6 years) performed five climbing courses, and the influence of achievement goals, perceived ability, and task difficulty on effort and performance was studied. According to the achievement goal theory: (a) task-involved boys exerted more effort and performed better than ego-involved boys; and (b) exerted effort was determined by an interaction of one's achievement goal, perceived ability (PA), and task difficulty. Ego-high PA boys and task-low PA boys exerted the most effort on the moderate course; ego-low PA boys exerted least effort on the moderate and very difficult courses. Finally, task-high PA boys exerted more effort on the most difficult courses. The motivational processes underlying these findings are discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

The effect of goal-setting and feedback on age differences in secondary memory.

Goal-setting and feedback have been found to improve performance on a variety of tasks. The present study applied this finding to an examination of adult age differences in secondary memory. Elderly and young adults completed a free-recall task in which one subgroup established a performance goal for blocks of trials and received feedback on a trial-by-trial basis. A second, comparison subgroup completed the same task without setting goals or receiving feedback. Results indicated that the use of the motivational technique of goal-setting and feedback increased memory performance of both age groups beyond that obtained under standard recall conditions.

Aged↗
PubMed2006

Goal-selection and movement-related conflict during bimanual reaching movements.

Conflict during bimanual movements can arise during the selection of movement goals or during movement planning and execution. We demonstrate a behavioral and neural dissociation of these 2 types of conflict. During functional magnetic resonance imaging scanning, participants performed bimanual reaching movements with symmetric (congruent) or orthogonal (incongruent) trajectories. The required movements were indicated either spatially, by illuminating the targets, or symbolically, using centrally presented letters. The processing of symbolic cues led to increased activation in a left hemisphere network including the intraparietal sulcus, premotor cortex, and inferior frontal gyrus. Reaction time cost for incongruent movements was substantially larger for symbolic than for spatial cues, indicating that the cost was primarily associated with the selection and assignment of movement goals, demands that are minimized when goals are directly specified by spatial cues. This goal-selection conflict increased activity in the pre-supplementary motor area and cingulate motor areas. Both cueing conditions led to larger activation for incongruent movements in the convexity of the superior parietal cortex, bilaterally, making this region a likely neural site for conflict that arises during the planning and execution of bimanual movements. These results suggest distinct neural loci for 2 forms of constraint on our ability to perform bimanual reaching movements.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

Goals in geriatric assessment: are we measuring the right outcomes?

Previous evaluative studies of outpatient geriatric assessment have focused on a limited set of outcomes related to functioning, health services utilization, and costs. The purpose of this study was to identify important goals for care as described by patients and family caregivers being cared for in this setting. Using a cross-section of 226 consecutive sets of patients and their primary family caregivers, physicians, and case managers, goals of care for individual patients were coded from open-ended interview responses. The most common categories of goals expressed by family caregivers were obtaining education and referrals (57.5%) and improving social and family relationships (53.0%). The process of establishing and meeting such goals should be explicitly included in the design of future evaluations of outpatient geriatric assessment.

Activities of Daily Living↗