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PubMed1996

The lack of selection bias in a snowball sampled case-control study on drug abuse.

BACKGROUND: Friend controls in matched case-control studies can be a potential source of bias based on the assumption that friends are more likely to share exposure factors. This study evaluates the role of selection bias in a case-control study that used the snowball sampling method based on friendship for the selection of cases and controls. METHODS: The cases selected fro the study were drug abusers located in the community. Exposure was defined by the presence of at least one psychiatric diagnosis. Psychiatric and drug abuse/dependence diagnoses were made according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III-R) criteria. Cases and controls were matched on sex, age and friendship. The measurement of selection bias was made through the comparison of the proportion of exposed controls selected by exposed cases (p1) with the proportion of exposed controls selected by unexposed cases (p2). If p1 = p2 then, selection bias should not occur. RESULTS: The observed distribution of the 185 matched pairs having at least one psychiatric disorder showed a p1 value of 0.52 and a p2 value of 0.51, indicating no selection bias in this study. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings support the idea that the use of friend controls can produce a valid basis for a case-control study.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1990

Peer relations of hearing-impaired adolescents.

Compared peer relations of hearing-impaired adolescents (n = 35) with those of hearing adolescents (n = 35) based on reports from mothers, fathers, and adolescents. Dependent measures included the emotional bonding, aggression, and social maturity subscales of the Missouri Peer Relations Inventory, the socialized aggression subscale from the Revised Behavior Problem Checklist and the activities and social subscales of the Child Behavior Checklist. Analyses showed that parents of hearing-impaired youths rated their adolescents' friendships as relatively high in aggression, but hearing-impaired adolescents rated their behavior with friends as relatively low in aggression. These findings were interpreted in light of recent research regarding the cognitive biases of aggressive hearing children. Mothers of hearing-impaired youths also rated their adolescents' friendships as lower in emotional bonding than did mothers of hearing adolescents.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1997

Social support and depression among older adults living alone: the importance of friends within and outside of a retirement community.

Using socioemotional selectivity theory as a framework, the study described in this article examined the extent to which social support from friends both within and outside of a retirement community was associated with depression. Although levels of social support from friends within the retirement community were quantitatively high, they failed to have a significant effect on depression. In contrast, social support from friends living elsewhere consistently predicted low levels of depression. Practice implications include the importance of maintaining friendship ties with people living elsewhere and of strengthening friendship ties within the retirement community.

Aged↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Functional outcome from traumatic brain injury: unidimensional or multidimensional?

This study compared multidimensional and unidimensional measures of functional outcome from traumatic brain injury in a referred sample of 67 persons with moderate to severe traumatic brain injury who resided in the community or in a nonhospital facility. Four outcome indicators (independence in self-care, independence in travel, paid employment, and friendship) were correlated with the patients' ratings on two unidimensional outcome measures, the Disability Rating Scale (DRS) and Glasgow Outcome Scale (GOS), and on a multidimensional outcome measure, the Craig Handicap Assessment and Reporting Technique (CHART). The results showed that the CHART Occupation and Social Integration scales were associated with different outcome indicators, controlling for overall outcome as measured by the DRS and GOS. DRS and GOS ratings were associated more strongly with the self-care and travel indicators than with the employment or friendship indicators. The results support a multidimensional model of functional outcome from brain injury, suggest that the CHART may measure some outcome dimensions more specifically than do the DRS and GOS, and point to limitations of unidimensional outcome scales.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Close relationships and social competence of hospitalized and nonhospitalized adolescents.

This study was designed to examine the social relationships of adolescents with severe disorders. The study sample consisted of 33 adolescent inpatients in a psychiatric unit, as well as 33 nonhospitalized adolescents. Participants completed the Network of Relationship Inventory for an assessment of the quality of their relationships with mother, father, close friend, and other significant adults. In addition, friendship intimacy was assessed. Results showed nonhospitalized adolescents describing a close relationship with their parents, as well as with their close friends. Their relationships with their friends were mature. Hospitalized adolescents described a less close relationship with their parents, whereas they were close to and valued their relationships with their friends and other significant adults. Though both groups described similar levels of emotional closeness, hospitalized adolescents tended more to exert control or to evince a penchant for similarity to the other in their friendships. Results are discussed within the framework of adolescent social tasks.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

Personal goals in social roles: divergences and convergences across roles and levels of analysis.

Most contemporary personal goal research aggregates across goals, perhaps masking important differences between goals. We assessed this risk by examining both similarities and differences between the goals that participants pursued in five important social roles. Previous relevant findings (Cantor, Norem, Niedenthal, Langston, & Brower, 1987) and self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985) were used to predict between-role differences in goal appraisal dimensions. Although theoretically meaningful differences were found across child, employee, romantic, friendship, and student goals, and also across within- and between-subject levels of analysis, all goals were essentially the same in one important way: Making longitudinal progress in them predicted positive change in accompanying role-circumstances and role-satisfaction (excepting friendship goals). This indicates that researchers do not necessarily lose information by aggregating, and affirms that goal-attainment is generally desirable.

Female↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Middle-class African American adolescents' and parents' conceptions of parental authority and parenting practices: a longitudinal investigation.

Conceptions of parental authority and ratings of parental rules and decision making were examined longitudinally among 82 middle-class African American adolescents and their parents (82 mothers and 52 fathers), who were divided into two groups according to family income. Adolescents were, on average, 13.14 years of age at Time 1 and 15.05 years of age at Time 2. Nearly all adolescents and parents affirmed parents' legitimate authority to regulate (and children's obligation to comply with) rules regarding moral, conventional, prudential, friendship, and multifaceted issues, but they were more equivocal in their judgments regarding personal issues. With age, adolescents increasingly judged personal issues to be beyond the bounds of legitimate parental authority, but judgments differed by family income. Adolescents from upper income families rejected parents' legitimate authority to regulate personal issues more at Time 1 than did adolescents from middle income families, but no differences were found at Time 2. Authority to regulate adolescents' behavior did not extend to other adults or to schools, churches, and the law. With adolescents' increasing age, African American families became less restrictive in regulating prudential, friendship, multifaceted, and personal issues. Adolescents', mothers', and fathers' judgments demonstrated significant continuity over time, but few cross- or within-generation associations in judgments were found. Conceptions of legitimate parental authority at Time 1 were found to predict family rules at Time 2.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1992

Controversies in nursing ethics: a historical review.

The author critiques the dialectic between justice-based ethics and an ethic of caring from a historical perspective (by analogy with the dialectic between agape and friendship). Justice-based ethics have been problematic for nursing because of the decontextualized approach. The ethic of caring is problematic because caring, being contextual, is particularistic and therefore can be based on morally irrelevant factors, such as liking. There is a tradition of writing which seeks to reconcile the particularistic obligations of friendship with the moral duty to all others equally. Ideas from the following authors are reviewed for relevance to nursing: Aristotle, Aelred of Rievaulx, Augustine, John Cassian, Cicero, George Berkeley, Immanuel Kant, Michel de Montaigne, Jeremy Taylor and Max Weber. The authors concludes by noting that both sides of the dialectic are synthesized in the lived experience of individuals. A synthesis in thought is called for on this basis.

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome↗
PubMed2006

Self-monitoring and close relationships.

Three types of close relationships have received attention from theorists and researchers interested in self-monitoring: friendships, romantic relationships, and marriage. Our review of this literature was organized around three phases of relationships: initiation, maintenance, and dissolution. Across the three types of relationships, consistent differences between high self-monitors and low self-monitors emerged concerning the structure of their social relationships (segmented vs. integrated), the basis for choosing friends and romantic partners (activity-based vs. person-based), and the orientation taken to romantic and marital partners (uncommitted vs. committed). Across all three types of relationships, however, little is known about the processes and consequences involved in the dissolution of close relationships for high self-monitors and low self-monitors. Relatively little is also known about the processes used by high self-monitors and low self-monitors to maintain their friendships and marriages. In addition to addressing these deficiencies in the literature, theorists and researchers interested in self-monitoring and close relationships need to develop sophisticated, causal models that can account for (a) interaction exchanges in the relationships, (b) dyadic as well as individual levels of analysis, and (c) temporal and situational changes in the course of close relationships.

Acculturation↗
PubMed1994

Adolescents' and parents' conceptions of parental authority and personal autonomy.

Conceptions of parental authority and ratings of adolescent-parent conflict were assessed in 68 sixth, eighth, and tenth graders and their parents. Boundaries of adolescent personal jurisdiction and conflict over these boundaries were examined. Participants judged the legitimacy of parental authority and rated the frequency and intensity of conflict regarding 24 hypothetical moral, conventional, personal, multifaceted (e.g., containing conventional and personal components), prudential, and friendship issues. Adolescents and parents agreed that parents should retain authority regarding moral and conventional issues. Parents treated multifaceted, friendship, prudential, and personal issues as more contingent on parental authority than did adolescents, based on conventional, prudential, and psychological reasons, whereas adolescents treated these issues as under personal jurisdiction, based on personal concerns. Personal reasoning and judgments increased with age. Multifaceted issues were discussed more than all other issues, but moral and conventional conflicts were more intense than all other conflicts. The findings are discussed in terms of previous research on parental authority and adolescent-parent conflict during adolescence.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1995

Antisocial boys and their friends in early adolescence: relationship characteristics, quality, and interactional process.

This study examines the close friendships of early adolescent boys in relation to antisocial behavior. 186 13-14-year-old boys and their close friends were interviewed, assessed at school, and videotaped in a problem-solving task. Similarity was observed between the demographic characteristics and antisocial behavior of the boys and their close friends. There was a tendency for the close friends of antisocial boys to live within the same neighborhood block and to have met in unstructured, unsupervised activities. Direct observations of interactions with close friends revealed a reliable correlation between antisocial behavior, directives, and negative reciprocity. Positive interactions within the friendship were uncorrelated with antisocial behavior and relationship quality. Implications of these findings for clinical and developmental theory are discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1993

The transition to young adulthood: generational boundary dissolution and female identity development.

This research explored links between differential qualities of family connectedness and young adult females' development of an independent identity. Identity development involves exploration of possible roles and choices in particular domains such as occupation, dating, and friendship, followed by commitment to a set of values and behaviors in one of these areas. In this study, women who reported that their parents encouraged autonomy while still maintaining closeness also reported more exploration in their friendship and dating relationships. In contrast, reports of parent-child boundary dissolution, characterized by role-reversal, enmeshment, and overinvolvement, were related to less exploration, particularly in dating relationships. Mother-daughter boundary dissolution, specifically, was linked to women's tendency to base their commitments to a career and relationships with others on parental values and expectations without ever exploring alternative choices. Father-daughter boundary dissolution was related to lower exploration as well as lower commitment to values and beliefs in any area. These findings lend support to theoretical and clinical impressions that intergenerational boundary violations hinder the development of an independent identity.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1988

Intimacy and mental disorder in late middle age. Report of the TURVA project.

This study, which was carried out as part of the TURVA project on psychosocial adaptation in old age, is concerned with the significance of social support to people approaching retirement age. The population consisted of 200 urban dwellers and 189 rural dwellers, who were studied at the age of 62. The subjects were either about to retire in the near future or had already retired, and it was assumed that this event causes a certain amount of stress, which may lead to mental disturbance regardless of the amount of social support available to the individual. Intimate relationship and close friendship served as the measures of social support. Mental disturbances were assessed on the basis of the General Health Questionnaire (36-item version) and the number of psychic and especially depressive symptoms. The prevalence of mental disturbance and depressive symptoms was lowest in those people who lived in a close marital relationship and who also described their spouse as empathic. Psychic symptoms were most common in those people who said their relationship to their spouse was distant and who described them as unempathic. The subjects who were not married fell in-between these 2 groups regardless of whether they had an intimate relationship with someone of the opposite sex. A positive marital relationship seemed to provide a shield against depression, while a negative marital relationship tended to make the individual more vulnerable to depression. The role of a close non-marital friendship depended on the respondent's sex. In women, it was associated with a high prevalence of depressive symptoms.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed1997

Relationships, individual differences, and children's use of literate language.

BACKGROUND: Research in children's oral language and early literacy learning currently stresses the facilitative role of social context. Social context in this literature is typically treated on a macro-level, e.g., mother-child interaction or peer interaction. We present a more differentiated model of peer influences on children's learning one oral language register, 'literate language'. Literate language, which predicts school-based literacy, is defined as talk about language and literacy. AIMS: We suggest that children's temperament and their close relationships, in the form of friendships, play important roles in literate language learning. We present separate models for friends and nonfriends and posit that literate language is learned more effectively between friends because of the emotional tenor of this relationship. When they are with friends children, even those that might be considered 'difficult', disagree, resolve disagreements, then express emotions indicative of social understanding. Reflection upon emotion states, in turn, leads to literate language. SAMPLE: The sample comprised 33 males and 23 females attending American kindergarten classes, with a mean age of 65 months. METHODS: Dyads of same gender and race were observed 12 times across the school year during which time samples of oral language were taken. Measures of children reading and writing were also collected. RESULTS: The data support our model, and the friendship model accounting for more of the variance in literate language (R2 = .69) than did the nonfriend model (R2 = .43). CONCLUSIONS: Children with friends engage in the sort of conceptual conflict and resolutions which maximise use of literate language. This context seems particularly important for 'difficult' children. Future research should continue to examine the interface between individual and group levels variables.

Child, Preschool↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Social outcomes for students with and without learning disabilities in inclusive classrooms.

Social outcomes of students who participated in two different educational settings designed to provide special services for students with learning disabilities (LD) placed full-time within the general education classroom were examined. Participants were 185 third-through sixth-grade students: 59 students with LD, 72 low to average achieving, and 54 high achieving. There was an overall educational setting effect, with students on the consultation/collaborative teaching setting demonstrating more positive outcomes than students in the co-teaching setting on friendship quality and peer acceptance. Students with LD in the consultation/collaborative teaching setting also demonstrated moderate increases in the number of reciprocal friendships from fall to spring. Discussion addresses the positive social outcomes for students with LD and high-achieving students in the consultation/collaborative teaching setting, and the importance of monitoring student progress in all settings.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Mapping the intimate relationship mind: comparisons between three models of attachment representations.

This study compared three models of how attachment working models might be cognitively represented. Model 1 posits that attachment representations consist of a single global working model summarizing attachment across specific relationships and domains. Model 2 proposes three independent working models for the relationship domains of family, platonic friendships, and romantic partners. Model 3 postulates that specific relationship models are nested under relationship domain representations that are, in turn, nested under an overarching global working model. Participants completed standard attachment scales for the relationship domains of family, platonic friendships, and romantic partners and also provided attachment ratings for three specific relationships within each domain. As expected, confirmatory factor analyses showed that Model 3 attained the best fit, regardless of analysis strategy, measurement strategy, gender, and relationship status. Implications are discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Peer and parenting characteristics of boys and girls with subclinical attention problems.

OBJECTIVE: This study examines peer and parenting characteristics of 149 boys and girls with and without subclinical attention problems. METHOD: Multivariate analyses showed that children with attention problems had higher levels of negative peer nominations and conflict and betrayal in friendships, and their parents tended to use higher levels of negative parenting characteristics compared to comparison children. Children with subclinical attention problems also reported lower levels of positive friendship qualities, and their parents tended to use lower levels of positive parenting characteristics than comparison children. RESULTS: Beyond normative gender differences (e.g., girls reported higher rates of parental involvement than boys), no significant group by gender interactions were found. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that both girls and boys who were identified using a subclinical cutoff for attention problems have more difficulties relative to comparison peers across social domains of functioning.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Homogeneity of cigarette smoking within peer groups: influence or selection?

Many studies stress the relevance of peer group influence as a determinant of smoking behavior of adolescents. Recent research, however, concludes that homogeneity of behavior in friendships is also due to selection; youngsters choose new friends whose behavioral patterns are similar to their own. Data from a three-wave longitudinal study among students of secondary education (N = 1,063) was used to examine sources of peer similarities. The results demonstrated that both influence and selection processes contributed to peer group homogeneity, but the largest part of similarities in smoking status had to be attributed to selection. No support was found for friendships breaking down for reasons of dissimilarity in smoking status. Our findings underscore the complexity of processes and interactions with regard to the relationships of teenagers and offer new views on prevention programs.

Adolescent↗