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PubMedDate not supplied

The effect of sedation on gastric emptying of a liquid marker in ponies.

OBJECTIVE: The effect of sedation on gastric emptying was evaluated in six ponies by monitoring serum concentrations of acetaminophen (AP) after intragastric administration. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: Prospective randomized experimental study. ANIMALS: Six adult ponies, 135 to 275 kg. METHODS: Fifteen minutes after the intravenous administration of xylazine (1 mg/kg), butorphanol (0.05 mg/kg), acepromazine (0.05 mg/kg) or saline, ponies were given AP (20 mg/kg in 350 mL water) by stomach tube. Blood for AP analysis was collected at baseline and 15, 30, 45, 75, 90, 105, and 120 minutes after AP administration. The time (Tmax) to reach peak serum concentration (Cmax), and the area under the AP serum concentration versus time curve (AUC) were determined for each treatment group. RESULTS: Tmax was 31 mins in the control group, and this increased significantly (P<.05) after sedation. Cmax decreased (P<.05) after xylazine administration, and AUC decreased (P<.05) after acepromazine. CONCLUSIONS: This study indicated that sedation has a significant effect on the gastric emptying rate of a liquid in ponies.

Acepromazine↗
PubMed1986

Effects of amitraz, several opiate derivatives and anticholinergic agents on intestinal transit in ponies.

Amitraz, atropine, glycopyrrolate and morphine (but not its derivatives, meperidine [pethidine], oxymorphone and butorphanol) produced similar effects on clinically observed intestinal functions and significantly prolonged intestinal transit, as assessed with polyethylene glycol (PEG). However, their mechanisms of action, particularly on intestinal transport (fluid movement), may differ widely. Loperamide appeared to exert a preferential action on intestinal transport rather than motility, as there was no significant delay in PEG transit. The action of amitraz in perturbing smooth muscle coordination and enhancing absorption involved, at least partially, an alpha 2 adrenergic component susceptible to yohimbine. Naloxone, an opiate antagonist, did not influence amitraz responses but induced the return of intestinal sounds and defecation after a refractory period in morphine-dosed ponies. The results suggest potential clinical applications in horses for loperamide in diarrhoea therapy, for alpha 2 adrenergic antagonists in obstruction and ileus and, possibly, of amitraz-like agents in reducing fluid losses in diarrhoea.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

A comparison of injectable anaesthetic regimens in Mammoth asses.

Xylazine (1.1 mg/kg body weight [bwt])-ketamine (2.2 mg/kg bwt) (X/K) anaesthesia was evaluated, in nine Mammoth asses, for effectiveness and compared with two other injectable anaesthetic combinations: xylazine (1.1 mg/kg bwt)-butorphanol (0.044 mg/kg bwt)-ketamine (2.2 mg/kg bwt) (X/B/K); and xylazine (1.1 mg/kg bwt)-tiletamine-zolazepam (1.1 mg/kg bwt) (X/T). All drugs were given intravenously (i.v.). Heart rate, respiratory rate, systolic blood pressure, arterial blood pH, PCO2, PO2, recumbency time and number of attempts to stand were measured. Quality of induction and recovery, muscle relaxation and response to stimulus were evaluated subjectively. One animal did not become recumbent with X/K. Recumbency times were significantly (P < 0.05) different: the shortest time was with X/K (24 mins) and the longest time with X/T (46 mins), with X/B/K, it was 37 mins. Assess required significantly more attempts to stand with X/T (n = 3) than with X/K (n = 1) or X/B/K (n = 2). No significant differences in heart rate, respiratory rate, blood pressure, arterial PO2 or PCO2 were detected between groups. Arterial pH was significantly lower at 15 mins in the X/B/K and X/T groups than in the X/K group. Although X/K generally produced effective immobilisation, the combinations of X/B/K and X/T, appeared to be more satisfactory and relatively safe, and provided longer recumbency times and increased muscle relaxation compared with X/K.

Anesthesia, Intravenous↗
PubMed1997

Measurement of cardiac output in standing horses by Doppler echocardiography and thermodilution.

Measurement of cardiac output by Doppler echocardiography were compared to simultaneous measurements by thermodilution in 9 conscious horses. In the Doppler technique, mean blood flow velocities for estimation of cardiac output were recorded from the aorta and pulmonary artery. The flow area of each vessel was calculated from the vessel diameter, measured from a 2-dimensional ultrasound image. Differences in the site and method of measuring the vessel diameter altered the estimation of cardiac output by the Doppler method. Cardiac output was modified by the i.v. infusion of 4 micrograms/kg bwt/min dopamine and 4 micrograms/kg bwt/min dobutamine and by the i.v. administration of 10 micrograms/kg bwt detomidine and 20 micrograms/kg bwt butorphanol. Doppler measurements of cardiac output correlated closely with measurement by thermodilution. Measurements from the aortic outflow correlated more closely with thermodilution, than those from the pulmonary artery (r = 0.89 and r = 0.77, respectively). Doppler measurements when the mean flow velocity was recorded from the aorta and the flow area was measured from the ascending aorta using the leading edge method. There was no significant bias between the 2 techniques when Doppler flow velocities were recorded by this method and the limits of agreement were narrow (+/- 12.26 l/min). The differences between the 2 methods increased with increasing cardiac output. Doppler echocardiography is a safe noninvasive method of measuring cardiac output in horses. The agreement between Doppler echocardiography and thermodilution in this study is similar to that reported in man and is similar to that reported between thermodilution and other techniques in man.

Analgesics↗
PubMed1993

Postoperative analgesia using phenylbutazone, flunixin or carprofen in horses.

Horses undergoing surgery were randomly assigned to one of three groups to receive phenylbutazone at 4 mg/kg (n = 72), flunixin at 1 mg/kg (n = 68) or carprofen at 0.7 mg/kg (n = 63) by slow intravenous injection at the end of surgery, just before they were disconnected from halothane. Pain was assessed by either of two resident surgical clinicians (who did not know which non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug had been given) when the horses first stood up, two and four hours later and the next morning. If repeated doses of analgesic drugs were given the time was recorded and taken as an end point for the study. The presence or absence of side effects was also recorded. In the three groups there was no significant difference between the types of surgery performed, the numbers of horses requiring further analgesia or the pain scores at any time. In the horses needing further analgesia there was a significant difference in the time after surgery at which the further analgesia was given between those in the flunixin group, 12.8 +/- 4.3 hours (mean +/- sd) and those in the phenylbutazone group, 8.4 +/- 4.6 hours; the carprofen group had an intermediate interval of 11.7 +/- 6.9 hours. Significantly fewer of the horses that received butorphanol during surgery needed further analgesia than of those that did not receive any opioid.

Analgesia↗
PubMed2000

Opioids affect acquisition of LiCl-induced conditioned taste aversion: involvement of OT and VP systems.

Aversive properties of lithium chloride (LiCl) are mediated via pathways comprising neurons of the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) and oxytocin (OT) and vasopressin (VP) cells in the hypothalamic paraventricular (PVN) and supraoptic (SON) nuclei. Because opioids act on brain regions that mediate effects of LiCl, we evaluated whether administration of opioids shortly before LiCl in rats influences 1) development of conditioned taste aversion (CTA) and 2) activation of NTS neurons and OT/VP cells. Neuronal activation was assessed by applying c-Fos immunohistochemical staining. Three opioids were used: morphine (MOR), a mu-agonist, butorphanol tartrate (BT), a mixed mu/kappa-agonist, and nociceptin/orphanin FQ (N/OFQ), which binds to an ORL1 receptor. BT and N/OFQ completely blocked acquisition of CTA. MOR alleviated but did not eliminate the aversive effects. Each of the opioids decreased LiCl-induced activation of NTS neurons as well as OT and VP cells in the PVN and SON. We conclude that opioids antagonize aversive properties of LiCl, presumably by suppressing activation of pathways that encompass OT and VP cells and NTS neurons.

Analgesics, Opioid↗
PubMed2005

The effect of analgesic agents on the healing rat medial collateral ligament.

BACKGROUND: Studies have suggested that some nonselective nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, including piroxicam, may improve ligament healing, whereas other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, including ibuprofen and the cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor celecoxib, may have no effect on the mechanical properties or may even deter the healing process. These results might reflect variations in cyclooxygenase enzyme selectivity by different drugs or, alternatively, may be related to their analgesic properties because it is generally accepted that early activity improves ligament healing. HYPOTHESIS: Nonselective nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs improve ligament healing, whereas other analgesics provide lesser degrees of improvement, and cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors are detrimental. STUDY DESIGN: Controlled laboratory study. METHODS: One hundred fifty-five Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into 7 treatment groups (piroxicam, naproxen, rofecoxib, butorphanol, 2 doses of acetaminophen, and control). The right medial collateral ligament of each rat was transected, and the drugs were administered postoperatively on days 1 to 6. On day 14, the rats were sacrificed, and mechanical testing was performed on the medial collateral ligament. RESULTS: The piroxicam group demonstrated significantly greater load to failure (27%) compared with the control. No significant differences were observed between other groups. CONCLUSIONS: Piroxicam improves ligament healing, but this effect cannot be attributed to all nonselective nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Opiate analgesics, acetaminophen, and cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors do not appear to categorically affect ligament healing. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: In the treatment of ligament injury, piroxicam may be a drug of choice.

Acetaminophen↗
PubMed1993

Opioid antagonist adjuncts to epidural morphine for postcesarean analgesia: maternal outcomes.

This prospective, randomized, controlled investigation compared the effects of three prophylactic mu-opioid antagonists, epidural butorphanol (BU) 3 mg, epidural nalbuphine (NB) 10 mg, and oral naltrexone (NX) 6 mg, on postcesarean epidural morphine analgesia. After randomization, 102 term parturients underwent cesarean delivery with epidural anesthesia, 2% lidocaine and epinephrine 1:200,000. When the umbilical cord was clamped, each patient received one epidural solution (containing morphine 4 mg plus either saline or treatment drug), and one oral capsule (containing either placebo or treatment drug) in a double-blind manner. Maternal outcomes included pain and satisfaction [assessed with 100-mm visual analog scales (VAS)], and the incidence and severity of respiratory depression, somnolence, pruritus, nausea, and emesis. Through the first 12 h postpartum, the BU group achieved significantly greater analgesia than the morphine sulfate (control) (MS), NB, and NX groups, a significantly lower incidence of severe pruritus than the MS group, and significantly greater satisfaction than MS and NX groups. Epidural morphine and BU promoted better analgesia and satisfaction than any previously documented postcesarean regimen.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

A novel anaesthetic regimen for surgical procedures in guineapigs.

A combination of tiletamine/zolazepam, xylazine and butorphanol provides deep surgical, long-duration anaesthesia in guineapigs with a smooth induction and recovery period. The described dosages mainly affect the respiratory functions and blood gas parameters, with a minor-to-moderate effect on the cardiovascular system.

Adrenergic alpha-Agonists↗
PubMed2003

Physicians and the pharmaceutical industry: a dysfunctional relationship.

The pharmaceutical industry is one of the largest and most profitable industries in the world, and in the United States, the industry has a particularly privileged economic position. Yet the cost of drugs in the United States is higher than anywhere else, due largely to the fact that the industry is focusing increasingly on marketing rather than on the development of meaningful new medications: available evidence does not support claims of great expense for the development of new drugs. Because of its vast resources, the pharmaceutical industry has assumed an increasing influence in medicine, which, given the differences in values and priorities between medicine and the drug companies, is a cause for concern. The pharmaceutical industry has acted to maximize its profits in ways that frequently conflict with medicine's need for truth and full disclosure. Indeed, the industry has arguably worked to compromise physicians' judgments, as well as academic standards. As a result, despite government regulation there have been unnecessary adverse effects from drugs. The experience with butorphanol (Stadol) exemplifies problems in the current system and the harm that can result. Changes are suggested to make the pharmaceutical industry more responsive to the needs of patients and physicians.

Adverse Drug Reaction Reporting Systems↗
PubMed2000

Standing laparoscopic-guided uterine biopsy in a southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum).

Transrectal ultrasonography of a 35-yr-old captive female southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum) with a history of chronic mucohemorrhagic vulvar discharge revealed right transmural uterine horn enlargement. Abdominal laparoscopic surgery, although extremely difficult because of inadequate instrumentation, permitted uterine visualization and biopsy. Standing anesthesia, incorporating butorphanol and azaperone together with local anesthetic infiltration, facilitated the laparoscopy. A leiomyoma was suspected on the basis of history, physical examination, ultrasonographic appearance, and histopathology. Prior rhinoceros laparoscopies have failed, primarily from limitations imposed by recumbency.

Analgesics, Opioid↗
PubMed1987

Which potent opioid? Important criteria for selection.

Opioids remain the drugs of choice for the treatment of severe pain. In recent years several new potent opioids have become available for clinical use. These newer drugs are generally safer than the older morphine-like compounds and their differing pharmacological and pharmacokinetic properties allow the physician to choose an appropriate drug according to the clinical situation and need of an individual patient. These drugs are classified according to their activity at the opioid receptors. The opioid agonists produce their pharmacological effect by an almost exclusive action at mu-receptors. The agonist-antagonist group are kappa-receptor agonists and either competitive antagonists at the mu-receptor or weak mu-agonists. The use of the potent opioid agonists, because of their potential for causing respiratory depression, is restricted to hospitals. Fentanyl, the oldest drug of this class, is extensively used as a supplement to general anaesthesia, or in high doses as a 'complete' anaesthetic for patients undergoing cardiac surgery. Alfentanil and sufentanil are newer fentanyl derivatives. Alfentanil is unique in having a very short elimination half-life. This is a particular advantage during short operations and for day-case surgery. For longer operations alfentanil can be given as a continuous infusion to supplement nitrous oxide anaesthesia. Sufentanil is about 10 times more potent than fentanyl and is more rapidly eliminated. Initial reports suggest that it may be more effective than fentanyl as an anaesthetic supplement and that recovery may be more rapid. Both sufentanil and alfentanil are also used in cardiac anaesthesia. The newer agonist-antagonist opioids, butorphanol, nalbuphine and buprenorphine, have largely replaced pentazocine in clinical practice. Unlike pentazocine, they cause a low incidence of dysphoric side effects. Like the pure agonists, they cause respiratory depression; however, in contrast to the pure agonists this is not dose related, reaching a 'ceiling' as dose increases. The risk of dependence is also less, so that these drugs are safer for the treatment of chronic pain. Additionally, it is particularly worth noting that buprenorphine and nalbuphine cause minimal cardiovascular changes, and are safe and effective drugs for treatment of pain associated with myocardial infarction. Buprenorphine, which is effective parenterally, orally and sublingually, has a prolonged duration of action (up to 12 hours after a single dose).

Alfentanil↗
PubMed2002

Evaluation of the bispectral index as an indicator of degree of central nervous system depression in isoflurane-anesthetized horses.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether the bispectral index (BIS) can be used as an indicator of degree of CNS depression in isoflurane-anesthetized horses. ANIMALS: 10 Standardbred and 6 Norwegian cold-blooded trotter stallions admitted for routine castration. PROCEDURE: A 2-channel referential electrode configuration was used to record EEG for calculation of BIS by the EEG monitor. The BIS was calculated before (awake) and after (sedated) administration of detomidine (0.01 mg/kg of body weight, IV) and butorphanol (0.01 mg/kg, IV). Anesthesia was induced with ketamine hydrochloride (2.5 mg/kg, IV) and diazepam (0.04 mg/kg, IV) and maintained with isoflurane delivered in oxygen. The BIS was calculated after 30 minutes of equilibration at an end-tidal isoflurane concentration of 1.4% (n = 8) or 1.9% (8) and recorded continuously during surgery. RESULTS: Bispectral index was significantly less in sedated and anesthetized horses, compared with awake horses. However, BIS was not significantly different between sedated and anesthetized horses. Mean BIS in horses anesthetized at 1.9% isoflurane was significantly greater, compared with horses anesthetized at an end-tidal concentration of 1.4%. Four horses in the 1.4% group moved during surgery, and BIS increased immediately prior to movement in 2 of these horses. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: BIS is not a precise indicator of degree of CNS depression in isoflurane-anesthetized horses. Thus, determination of BIS may not be a useful technique for monitoring anesthetic depth in isoflurane-anesthetized horses.

Analgesics↗
PubMed2000

Cardiorespiratory effects of four alpha2-adrenoceptor agonist-ketamine combinations in captive red wolves.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the cardiopulmonary effects of immobilizing doses of xylazine-ketamine (XK), medetomidine-ketamine (MK), medetomidine-ketamine-acepromazine (MKA), and medetomidine-butorphanol-ketamine (MBK) in captive red wolves. DESIGN: Prospective study. ANIMALS: 32 adult captive red wolves. PROCEDURE: Wolves were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 treatment groups: XK, MK, MKA, or MBK. Physiologic variables measured included heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate, tidal volume, oxygen-hemoglobin saturation (Spo2), end-tidal CO2, arterial blood gases, and rectal temperature. Induction time, muscle relaxation, and quality of recovery were assessed. RESULTS: Heart rates were lower in wolves in the MBK group than for the other groups. All 4 drug combinations induced considerable hypertension, with diastolic pressures exceeding 116 mm Hg. Blood pressure was lowest in wolves receiving the MBK combination. Respiratory rate was significantly higher in wolves receiving XK, MK, and MKA. Tidal volumes were similar for all groups. Wolves receiving XK, MK, and MKA were well-oxygenated throughout the procedure (SPo2 > 93%), whereas those receiving MBK were moderately hypoxemic (87% < Spo2 < 93%) during the first 20 minutes of the procedure. Hyperthermia was detected initially following induction in all groups. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The alpha2-adrenoceptor agonist-ketamine combinations provide rapid reversible anesthesia for red wolves but cause severe sustained hypertension. Such an adverse effect puts animals at risk for development of cerebral encephalopathy, retinal hemorrhage, pulmonary edema, and myocardial failure. Although the MBK combination offers some advantages over the others, it is advised that further protocol refinements be made to minimize risks associated with acute hypertension.

Acepromazine↗
PubMed2000

Subjective and objective measurements of postoperative pain in cats.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the ability of various subjective and objective measurements to determine the presence and degree of postoperative pain in cats. DESIGN: Randomized controlled prospective clinical study. ANIMALS: 18 healthy client-owned cats. PROCEDURE: Cats were randomly assigned to 3 groups of 6: control, tenectomy, and onychectomy. Jugular catheters were placed the day prior to surgery. All surgeries were performed by the same surgeon, and all observations were made by the same blinded trained observer. One hour prior to surgery and at assigned intervals for 36 hours after surgery, heart rate, respiratory rate, and rectal temperature were measured. Scores were assigned for 3 interaction responses, including response to palpation, by use of simple descriptive scales, and to 2 pain assessments by use of visual analogue scales. Blood was collected to measure plasma beta-endorphin and cortisol concentrations. Butorphanol was administered to all cats before surgery and to any cat subjectively assessed to be experiencing pain after surgery. RESULTS: Only visual analogue scale scores and response to palpation scores differed significantly between control and surgical groups. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Determination of the presence of pain in cats can be made on the basis of observation and interaction by a trained observer. Physiologic measurements, including plasma cortisol and beta-endorphin concentrations, did not differentiate between control cats and cats that underwent surgery.

Analgesics, Opioid↗
PubMed2004

Evaluation of the use of anesthesia and analgesia in reptiles.

OBJECTIVE: To determine anesthetic techniques and the drugs used to provide anesthesia and analgesia to reptiles. DESIGN: Mail-out questionnaire. SAMPLE POPULATION: 367 members of the Association of Reptile and Amphibian Veterinarians. PROCEDURE: 1,091 members listed in the 2002 directory of the Association of Reptile and Amphibian Veterinarians were asked to complete a questionnaire regarding anesthesia and analgesia. RESULTS: 367 of 1,091 (33.6%) individuals completed the questionnaire; 88.8% used inhalants (particularly isoflurane) for anesthesia, and ketamine, propofol, and butorphanol were the most commonly used injectable agents. Intubation, fluids, and having a dedicated anesthetist were most commonly used for patient support, and pulse oximetry and Doppler ultrasonography were most commonly used for monitoring. Respiratory depression, difficulty monitoring anesthetic depth, prolonged recovery, and hypothermia were the most frequent complications. Nearly all respondents believed that reptiles feel pain, but analgesics were used infrequently for many reasons. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Providing anesthesia in reptiles is difficult, especially regarding anesthetic depth and vital parameters, and methods of support are used less frequently than in domestic species. Provision of analgesia is uncommon. Research regarding pain and its assessment, response to analgesics, and drug pharmacokinetics is needed. Dissemination of this information to practitioners needs to be improved for enhancement of the standard of care for reptiles.

Analgesia↗
PubMed1993

The development of pain in young pigs associated with castration and attempts to prevent castration-induced behavioral changes.

Four experiments were conducted to examine the development of castration-induced behavioral changes, the effects of castration age on pig weight gain, and the efficacy of common analgesics for use in castrated pigs. In Exp. 1, behavioral changes associated with castration of pigs at 1, 5, 10, 15, or 20 d of age were evaluated. Castration caused measurable changes (reduced suckling, reduced standing, and increased lying times, P < .05) in the behavior of young pigs compared with that of intact pigs at all ages tested. Effects of age and interactions between age and castration treatment were not significant (P > .10) for any behaviors evaluated. In Exp. 2, the performance of pigs castrated at 1 d of age was compared with the performance of those castrated on d 14 and female littermates. Birth weights, weaning weights, and mortality were recorded. Pigs that were castrated on d 14 were heavier (P = .05) at weaning and had a higher (P < .05) weight gain during lactation compared to pigs castrated on d 1 of age. Pig mortality was similar among the treatments. In Exp. 3 and 4, the efficacies of pain-reducing drugs (non-narcotic analgesics) were evaluated for effectiveness in reducing castration-induced behavioral changes in 8-wk-old pigs. Although castration reduced (P < .05) feeding time and weight gain, neither aspirin nor butorphanol influenced behavioral changes associated with castration. We conclude that pigs show similar behavioral changes (and probably pain perception) when castrated from 1 to 20 d of age. However, pig performance data favored castration at 14 d rather than at 1 d of age.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Age Factors↗
PubMed1999

The effect of opioid and acepromazine premedication on the anesthetic induction dose of propofol in cats.

The median effective dosage (ED50) for induction of anesthesia with propofol was determined by using the up-and-down method in 31 unpremedicated cats, in 30 cats premedicated with butorphanol, 0.4 mg/kg body weight (BW), and acepromazine, 0.1 mg/kg BW, intramuscularly, and in 30 cats premedicated with morphine, 0.2 mg/kg BW, and acepromazine, 0.1 mg/kg BW, intramuscularly. The dose required for a satisfactory anesthetic induction in 50% of unpremedicated cats (ED50) was 7.22 mg/kg BW and of premedicated cats was 5.00 mg/kg BW. The reduction in dose was statistically significant in both premedicated groups compared with no premedication. There was no significant difference in ED50 between premedication regimes. Cyanosis was the most common adverse effect observed in all groups following anesthetic induction with propofol.

Acepromazine↗