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PubMed1988

Inheritance of the amount and distribution of human body fat.

Despite recent advances, controversy continues about the inheritance of the amount and distribution of body fat. We have studied the genetic and 'cultural' (nongenetic) transmission between generations of the body mass index, sum of six skinfold measurements, percentage of body fat, fat mass, fat-free mass, and two indicators of fat distribution. These data were obtained in 1698 members of 409 families, which included the following pairs of family members: spouses, (maximum number of pairs = 348), foster parent-adopted child (322), siblings by adoption (120), first-degree cousins (95), uncle/aunt-nephew/niece (88), parent-natural child (1239), full sibs (370), dizygotic twins (69), and monozygotic twins (87). The total transmissible variance ranged from about 40 percent for the amount of subcutaneous fat to 60 percent for the pattern of subcutaneous fat distribution. Biological inheritance accounted for only 5 percent of the variance for subcutaneous fat and the body mass index, but 20 to 30 percent for the percentage of body fat, fat mass, fat-free mass, and fat distribution. These data suggest that the amount of internal fat is influenced by heredity more than the amount of subcutaneous fat. Furthermore, we consistently found that nongenetic influences are quite important in determining the amount and distribution of body fat in the population. These estimates may differ in the subpopulation of obese individuals.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1992

Are race differences in the prevalence of hypertension explained by body mass and fat distribution? A survey in a biracial population.

Body mass and body fat distribution are important considerations in the study of hypertension. However, few studies have investigated the relationships with regards to race differences in elevated arterial pressure. A population-based sample of black and white adults was assessed by interview and physical measurement. The prevalence of hypertension (defined as 140/90 mmHg and/or medically treated) was disproportionately higher among blacks than whites. In addition, blacks had a higher prevalence of the more severe hypertension (160/95 mmHg) and hypertension with higher prevalence at earlier ages than whites. Black females had a significantly higher distribution of body mass index (BMI) than white females, while no difference was found in the distributions of males. White males had a higher distribution of waist to hip ratio (WHR) than black males, while black females had the higher values compared to white females. The prevalence of hypertension increased with BMI and WHR. Blacks maintained higher rates of hypertension after controlling for BMI and WHR, however, the margin of difference diminished when BMI and WHR was considered together. The black-white difference in hypertension was not completely explained by BMI and WHR. In addition, the strength of the association of hypertension and body size was different for blacks and whites which suggests possible differences in the mechanisms regulating blood pressure.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1999

Short-term longitudinal changes in subcutaneous fat distribution and body size among Japanese women in the third decade of life.

This research clarified the changes in body shape among Japanese women aged in their 20's, by measuring the subcutaneous fat distribution over the whole body and its circumference at certain points. The subjects, 13 healthy women, were measured twice, once in their early 20's and 5 years later in their late 20's. Subcutaneous fat thickness was measured at 14 points on the body using the B-mode ultrasound method and the body size was measured directly at 8 points on the body using a steel measure. Subcutaneous fat thickness tends to increase with age, except at the cheek, neck, bust and leg. Significant increases were detected especially at lower parts of the trunk such as the waist and infragluteal region. Meanwhile, despite the significant change in subcutaneous fat thickness, the circumferences measured did not change, and also weight tended to decrease with age. Based on this finding, except for fat, body mass, such as muscle and bone, decreases with age due to decreased exercise and changes in calorie intake. Cluster analysis of the accumulation patterns of subcutaneous fat indicated that there were the following 3 patterns of subcutaneous fat accumulation from the early 20's to the late 20's. I. Accumulation on the whole trunk (bust, abdomen, waist and back) and upper arm--trunk/upper arm accumulation pattern. II. Significant accumulation around waist--waist accumulation pattern. III. Even accumulation at abdomen, side abdomen, hip and lower hip--abdomen/hip accumulation pattern.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1997

Genetic determinants of regional fat distribution.

Upper body fat and abdominal visceral fat are two obesity-related phenotypes of interest because of their relationships with a variety of metabolic complications. The heritability of the amount of upper body fat or the level of upper body fat relative to lower body fat ranges from approximately 30-50% of the phenotype's age, sex and total body fat adjusted variance. On the other hand, familial studies of abdominal visceral fat reveal that the familial transmission reaches > 50% of the age, sex and total body fat adjusted variance. Complex segregation analysis undertaken with a panel of nuclear families indicates that major genes may account for a significant fraction of the variance in upper body fat and abdominal visceral fat. Two intervention studies conducted with pairs of male identical twins have shown that changes in upper body fat and visceral fat are more similar within pairs than between pairs, either in phenotype increments when challenged by chronic overfeeding, or in adipose tissue losses after exposure to long-term negative energy balance conditions. The evidence accumulated to date is sufficient to justify undertaking a search for the specific genes and molecular markers involved in the heterogeneity commonly observed in human fat topography.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Evaluation of body composition by means of anthropometric measures in obese and non obese adolescents from two socioeconomic levels].

Anthropometric measures of 120 female adolescents were analyzed, 60 of them from a low socio-economic level (LSEL),and 60 from a high socio-economic level (HSEL), with 30 obese and 30 non-obese in each group, in an attempt to verify differences between the socio-economic levels in relation to the body-composition and the distribution of fat throughout the body. The weight,height, upper arm circumference and 4 skin folds (triceps, biceps,subscapular and suprailiac) were measured, and the arm muscle area, arm fat area and percentage of body fat were estimated. Those who were obese from LSEL presented an average height lower (p<0.05) than the obese from HSEL, and a greater proportion of this group presented a height deficit for their age. The arm muscle area was greater (p<0.05) in the obese from HSEL, but the percentage of body fat was similar in the two groups as well as the measures of the isolated skin folds. The increase in fat in the obese from LSEL, when compared with the non-obese, was 2.8 times greater than the muscle. In the HSEL, this increase was 1.3 times greater. It was concluded that the obese from both socio-economic levels presented different types of obesity in relation to body composition,but were similar in relation to body fat distribution.

English Abstract↗
PubMed1990

The assessment of the body fat percentage by skinfold thickness measurements in childhood and young adolescence.

The relationship of skinfold thicknesses to body density and of skinfold thicknesses to densitometrically determined body fat was evaluated in a group of 378 boys and girls, aged 7-20 years. According to their maturation level, they were divided into a prepubertal, a pubertal and a post-pubertal group. In each maturation group boys were older, had higher body-weights and body heights, higher body densities, lower percentage body fat, higher waist:hips ratios and higher trunk:total skinfolds ratios than girls. Body density in each maturation level could be quite precisely predicted by skinfold thicknesses. In prepubertal and pubertal boys and girls but not in post-pubertal boys and girls, age was also an important predicting variable for body density. The assessment of percentage body fat from skinfold thicknesses had a prediction error of 3-5%, which was highest in the prepubertal children. The prediction error is comparable to the prediction error of percentage body fat from skinfold thicknesses in adults, as reported in the literature. Only in post-pubertal boys and girls was the waist:hip ratio correlated with measures of body fatness. Moreover, only in the post-pubertal boys and in the pubertal and post-pubertal girls was the waist:hips ratio correlated with another measure of body fat distribution, the trunk:total skinfold ratio. The relative amount of internal body fat was found to be higher in the younger maturation groups. It is concluded that at younger ages the waist:hips ratio is a poor indicator of body fat distribution.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1991

Effect of a very-low-calorie diet on body composition and resting metabolic rate in obese men and women.

Very-low-calorie diets (VLCDs) provide a rapid decrease in total body weight, but limited data are available regarding the extent of fat loss and whether body fat distribution is altered. The purpose of this study was to investigate body composition, body fat distribution, and resting metabolic rate in obese men and women and to compare bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) with hydrodensitometry before and after 12 weeks of treatment in a VLCD program. Body composition was assessed by hydrodensitometry and BIA. Circumference measures were used to determine waist:hip and waist:thigh ratios. Seventeen subjects lost a mean of 24.2 kg. A mean of 75.5% of the weight loss was adipose tissue as measured by hydrodensitometry. BIA underestimated body fat percentage compared with hydrodensitometry in this obese population. Waist:hip and waist:thigh ratios showed a small but significant decrease, implying a decreased risk for diabetes and cardiovascular disease after weight loss. Resting metabolic rate, as measured by oxygen consumption, dropped 23.8% during the 12 weeks of the VLCD. The findings indicate that a VLCD can provide a rapid weight loss of more than 75% fat and a concomitant decrease in waist:hip and waist:thigh ratios. The findings also indicate that BIA may not be a useful tool in assessing fat loss in obese subjects. Finally, it appears that the decrease in resting metabolic rate that occurs during treatment with VLCD does not correlate with changes in lean body mass.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed2006

Inflammatory proteins are related to total and abdominal adiposity in a healthy adolescent population: the AVENA Study.

BACKGROUND: In adults, obesity is characterized by a state of chronic low-grade inflammation accompanied by moderately high concentrations of acute phase inflammatory proteins. Recent results regarding C-reactive protein (CRP) point to a similar status in adolescents; however, studies of associations of the serum inflammatory proteins CRP, ceruloplasmin, and complement factors C3 and C4 with body fat distribution remain scarce. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to establish the possible relations of serum inflammatory proteins with body fat estimates and body fat distribution in an apparently healthy adolescent population. DESIGN: This report included 472 adolescents (248 males and 224 females) aged 13-18.5 y who were recruited from the Spanish cross-sectional multicenter AVENA Study for whom anthropometric and immunologic data were complete. The concentrations of the serum proteins and the in vitro production of cytokines (interleukin 6 and tumor necrosis factor alpha) by isolated and stimulated white blood cells were measured. Relations with anthropometric measurements were explored by using simple and partial correlations. RESULTS: CRP, C3, and C4 were correlated with central obesity (as measured by waist circumference) and total body fat in both sexes (P < 0.01) and with ceruloplasmin in females only. After further adjustment for BMI, C3 remained independently associated with central obesity (P < 0.05). Production of the cytokines by white blood cells did not seem to be affected by an excess of body fat. CONCLUSIONS: Total body fat seems to be associated with a chronic low-grade systemic inflammation in apparently healthy adolescents. Central obesity is independently associated with C3 concentrations, which makes this marker especially interesting for further studies of obesity-related diseases.

Abdominal Fat↗
PubMed1979

Studies on the body composition, fat distribution and fat cell size and number of 'Ad', a new obese mutant mouse.

1. Studies have been performed on the body composition, the fat distribution, the fat cell size, and the 'observable' fat cell number of a new obese mutant, the Adipose (Ad) mouse. The serum glucose and insulin concentrations have also been investigated. All studies were undertaken with animals aged 6 months. 2. The obese animals weighed over 50% more than the lean, but there was no difference in the body or tail lengths. 3. The obese animals had an increase in the weight of the liver, but the increase was only proportional to the increase in the total body-weight. 4. The carcasses of the obese mice contained more water as well as more fat than those of the lean. In the males the fat content was 3.9 times greater, while in the females it was increased by 5.5 times. 5. The nitrogen content of the defatted dry carcass was the same in both lean and obese animals but the total body protein was higher in the obese. 6. Fat was dissected from four major depots, gonadal, abdominal, hind subcutaneous and interscapular subcutaneous (including brown adipose tissue), and each was substantially larger in the obese animals. This indicated that the additional fat of the Ad mouse was not localized to any particular site. 7. In Ad males there was no over-all increase in the observed number of adipocytes, all the extra fat being accommodated by an increase in fat cell size (3.8 times). However, in Ad females there was a 3.3 fold increase in the number of observable fat cells as well as a 2.2-fold increase in fat cell size. 8. Non-fasted obese animals were not hyperglycaemic, but there was a 5.3-fold increase in the concentration of serum insulin. Hyperinsulinemia in the presence of normoglycaemia suggested that the obese animals were insulin resistant.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed2001

The effects of androgens and estrogens on preadipocyte proliferation in human adipose tissue: influence of gender and site.

The gender-specific differences in body fat distribution suggest that sex steroids play an important role in regulating body fat distribution. Sex steroids may regulate adipose tissue mass by altering adipocyte number and size. The effects of various sex steroids on in vitro proliferation of preadipocytes from both sc and omental fat depots was investigated in men and women. Abdominal sc and omental preadipocytes from men (n = 14) and women (8 premenopausal and 7 postmenopausal) were cultured in the presence of 17beta-E2 (10(-7)-10(-9) M), estrone (10(-7)-10(-9) M), or dehydrotestosterone (DHT) (10(-7)-10(-9) M), and the rate of proliferation was measured over time (1-96 h) by DNA accumulation assays (micromoles per microg) and [(3)H]thymidine incorporation (disintegrations per min). In sc preadipocytes the rate of proliferation was increased between 24-48 h with E2 (10(-7) M) in both men (P = 0.028) and women (P = 0.017). Subcutaneous preadipocytes from women were more responsive to E2 in stimulating proliferation than those from men (women vs. men, DNA assay, 24 h, P = 0.014). In omental preadipocytes the increase in the rate of proliferation occurred at 24 h with E2 (10(-7) M) in women (P = 0.034) and at 48 h in men (P = 0.031). Gender appeared to influence the rate of proliferation by E2 in omental preadipocytes, with maximal stimulation of proliferation at 48 h in preadipocytes from women treated with E2 (10(-7) M; p = 0.007) compared with 72 h in preadipocyte cells from men (P = 0.048), as shown by DNA assay. Both estrone and the androgen DHT had no significant gender- or site-specific effect on the rate of proliferation at any time point. All DNA content data were further validated by thymidine incorporation analysis. In summary, E2 stimulates the rate of proliferation of preadipocytes in a dose-dependent manner, with significant gender- and site-specific differences. Neither estrone nor DHT affected adipocyte mass through proliferation of preadipocytes in this study. In conclusion, E2 may act as an important local factor influencing the proliferation of preadipocytes that may affect fat cell number in a depot- and gender-specific pattern in human abdominal sc and omental adipose tissue.

Adipocytes↗
PubMed1995

DNA polymorphisms in the alpha 2- and beta 2-adrenoceptor genes and regional fat distribution in humans: association and linkage studies.

The aim of this study was to investigate the relationships between DNA restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLP) in the alpha 2- and beta 2-adrenoceptor genes and body fat distribution in humans. Skinfold thickness measurements and genetic analyses (Southern blot) were performed on 280 individuals (142 parents and 138 offsprings) from the Québec Family Study. Using the association study design in unrelated adults, women but not men carrying the 6.3-kb allele of an alpha 2A-adrenoceptor/DraI RFLP had a significantly higher trunk to extremity skinfold ratio (= sum of subscapular+suprailiac+abdominal skinfolds/sum of biceps+triceps+medial calf skinfolds) compared to women without the allele (1.44 +/- 0.52 vs. 1.12 +/- 0.33; p < 0.005 after adjustment for age, p < 0.002 after adjustment for age and body mass index or for age and subcutaneous fat). Using the sib-pair linkage procedure, a significant inverse relationship was found between the proportion of alleles identical by descent shared by sibs at the alpha 2A RFLP marker locus and the squared differences of the trunk to extremity skinfold ratio (p = 0.02 after adjustment for age or for age and body mass index or for age and subcutaneous fat). For a beta 2-adrenoceptor/BanI RFLP, no significant association or linkage was found between fat distribution indicators and the marker. These results suggest that alpha 2A-adrenoceptor gene variability detected with DraI is associated with a relative subcutaneous fat pattern favoring accumulation of truncal-abdominal fat in women, and that the alpha 2A-adrenoceptor gene, or a locus in close proximity, may be linked to body fat distribution in humans independently of the overall level of fatness.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Role of hepatic-triglyceride lipase activity in the association between intra-abdominal fat and plasma HDL cholesterol in obese women.

Intra-abdominal fat content is an important variable in the association between regional body fat distribution and plasma high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels. In the present study, we report on the role of plasma postheparin lipases as well as abdominal and femoral adipose tissue lipoprotein lipase activities in the association between body fat distribution and plasma lipoprotein levels. Postheparin plasma lipoprotein lipase (LPL), hepatic-triglyceride lipase (H-TGL), abdominal and femoral adipose tissue (AT)-LPL activities and plasma lipoprotein levels were measured after an overnight fast in a sample of 16 obese women (ages 36.0 +/- 6.1 years [mean +/- SD], percent body fat 46% +/- 6%). Computed axial tomography was used to assess body fat distribution. Plasma postheparin LPL activity was neither correlated with total adiposity nor with the level of intra-abdominal fat. Intra-abdominal fat deposition was, however, positively correlated with H-TGL activity (r = 0.66, p less than 0.005). Furthermore, covariance analysis showed that the association between intra-abdominal fat and H-TGL was independent from total adiposity. Plasma postheparin LPL and abdominal AT-LPL activities showed no significant correlation with plasma lipoprotein levels, whereas femoral AT-LPL activity was positively correlated with the HDL2 cholesterol/HDL3 cholesterol ratio (r = 0.51, p less than 0.05). H-TGL activity was, however, negatively correlated with HDL2 cholesterol (r = -0.60, p less than 0.05), but not with HDL3 cholesterol (r = -0.28, NS). These results suggest that the high H-TGL activity in obese women with excess deep abdominal fat could be responsible for the reduction in plasma HDL2 cholesterol levels.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Abdomen↗
PubMed1996

[Correlation of histopathologic findings with ultrasonography variables of the endometrium according to body weight and adipose tissue distribution in postmenopause].

The purpose of this work was to correlate the histologic findings and ultrasonographic variables of the endometrium in relation to corporal weight and body fat distribution, in two groups of women: one with posmenopausal uterine bleeding and other under hormonal replacement therapy (HRT). Thirty one posmenopausal women were studied and divided into two groups: I. women with posmenopausal uterine bleeding (n = 19) and II women with HRT (conjugated estrogens and chlormadinone) (n = 12). In both groups transvaginal ultrasound was accomplished the same day previous to the endometrial biopsy (EB). The EB was taken in the group I the day they attended the hospital referring transvaginal bleeding and in group I a statistical significant correlation was found among the corporal weight and histologic findings and among the endometrial refringence and the histologic findings. In group II there was a statistical significant correlation among the body fat distribution and endometrial refringence and among the endometrial thickness and histologic findings. It can be concluded that in women with posmenopausal bleeding the corporal weight influences the histologic findings and the refringence is related with histologic findings, while those under HRT is more important the body fat distribution over endometrial refringence and the endometrial thickness is related with histologic findings.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed2001

Hormone-related factors associated with hormone receptor levels in breast cancer.

Estrogen receptor (ER) and progesterone receptor (PgR) levels were determined in patients with a ductal infiltrating breast carcinoma. In premenopausal patients, the distribution of the PgR was higher than that of the ER. With increasing age of the patients, the concentration of the ER increased, whereas the PgR values showed an inverse relationship. According to the menstrual status, ER and PgR values were found to be higher in postmenopausal patients than in premenopausal ones. In relation to body fat distribution, in premenopausal patients the ER or PgR values were not found to be statistically significantly different (data no shown). In postmenopausal patients, the concentration of ER was diminished by 20% in patients with obesity of the upper body segment and by 40% in patients with obesity of the lower body segment as compared with the ER values of nonobese patients. While the PgR values diminished by 20% in patients with obesity of the lower body segment, in relation to PgR values of patients with obesity of the upper body segment, we found no statistically significant differences when compared with the PgR values of nonobese patients. With regard to the body mass index, this has remained constant in both types of body fat distribution. When body mass index values were compared with serum ER and PgR levels, no statistically significant differences were found.

Adult↗
PubMed1995

Which anthropometric indices of regional adiposity are related to the insulin resistance of aging?

OBJECTIVE: To determine which anthropometric methods of assessing body fat distribution are the most predictive of the insulin resistance of aging. DESIGN: Commonly used indices of regional adiposity were correlated with whole-body insulin sensitivity in 55 men and 29 women (age range 18-80 years). MEASUREMENTS: Insulin sensitivity (SI, minimal model), waist and hip girths, waist-to-hip ratios, conicity index, skinfolds, body fat percentage, maximal oxygen consumption. RESULTS: There was a wide disparity in the strength of relationships between commonly used anthropometric indices of fat distribution and whole-body insulin sensitivity. In both sexes minimal waist girth, however, was the primary variable in multivariate regression analysis, accounting for approximately 37% of the variance in SI. CONCLUSION: These findings indicate that anthropometric measures of regional adiposity are not interchangeable and/or equivalent when attempting to discern relationships between body fat distribution, insulin sensitivity, and aging.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed2005

Effect of adiposity and fat distribution on endometrial cancer risk in Shanghai women.

The authors conducted a population-based case-control study of 832 endometrial cancer cases and 846 frequency-matched controls in Shanghai, China (1997-2001), to examine the association of overall adiposity and body fat distribution with disease risk. Overall adiposity was estimated using weight and body mass index (BMI); upper body fat distribution was evaluated using waist circumference and waist:hip ratio. Overall and upper-body obesity were both associated with an elevated risk of endometrial cancer. Adjusted odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals for highest-versus-lowest quartile comparisons were 2.6 (95% confidence interval (CI): 2.0, 3.5) for weight, 2.9 (95% CI: 2.2, 3.9) for BMI, 4.7 (95% CI: 3.4, 6.4) for waist circumference, and 3.5 (95% CI: 2.6, 4.8) for waist:hip ratio. The positive associations with weight and BMI vanished after results were controlled for waist circumference, while associations with waist circumference and waist:hip ratio persisted after adjustment for BMI. The positive association with upper-body obesity was more pronounced among younger women, women who had never used oral contraceptives, and women with a history of diabetes mellitus (p for multiplicative interaction < 0.05). Upper-body obesity was related to increased risk among women with low BMI. These results suggest that obesity, particularly upper-body fat deposition, is associated with an increased risk of endometrial cancer.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1994

Lack of delay in hepatic insulin transit as indicated by concordance of insulin secretory and peripheral insulin pulses.

The liver is an important site of insulin metabolism and action. It has often been assumed that the liver may diminish the amplitude of the insulin secretory waveform without altering hepatic insulin transit time. However, the significant extraction and metabolism of hepatic insulin has the potential to delay hepatic insulin transit. To examine hepatic insulin transit, we studied the concordance of calculated insulin secretory peaks with peripheral insulin peaks in 12 healthy men of varying body weight and fat distribution. Adiposity was determined by percent body fat, and fat distribution by the waist to hip ratio. Arterialized peripheral venous samples for insulin and C-peptide assays were obtained every 2 minutes for 90 minutes. Pancreatic insulin secretion rates were estimated with individual C-peptide kinetics using a two-compartment model. Concordance between insulin secretory peaks and peripheral insulin peaks was assessed by the hypergeometric probability model. A significant concordance between secretory and peripheral insulin pulses was demonstrated in seven of 12 subjects (P < .00001). The mean pulse intervals for insulin secretion were similar to the mean pulse intervals for peripheral insulin. The degree of concordance between the insulin secretory peaks and peripheral insulin pulses was unrelated to adiposity or body fat distribution. Significant synchronicity exists between insulin secretory peaks and peripheral insulin peaks in healthy men. We conclude that despite significant hepatic insulin extraction and metabolism, hepatic insulin transit may not be delayed in healthy men.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Sex hormone levels in premenopausal African-American women with upper and lower body fat phenotypes.

Body fat distribution may be a better marker of a hormonal pattern associated with increased breast cancer risk than obesity. This cross-sectional study of 106 healthy premenopausal African-American (AA) women compared the midfollicular phase sex hormone and sex hormone-binding globulin levels in upper body fat (UBF) and lower body fat (LBF) phenotype and obese and nonobese women. Multivariate regression analyses were used to control for various confounders, including dietary factors. UBF phenotype women had 37% (P = 0.02), 50% (P = 0.01), 52% (P = 0.007), and 50% (P = 0.009) higher levels of estradiol (E2), free E2, testosterone (T), and free T, respectively, than LBF phenotype women. Only %free T was higher in obese than in nonobese women (P = 0.02). The levels of E2, free E2, %free E2, T, and free T were higher [by 42% (P = 0.01), 68% (P = 0.001), 18% (P = 0.04), 36% (P = 0.04), and 61% (P = 0.01), respectively] and the level of sex hormone-binding globulin was lower [by 28% (P = 0.04)] in obese UBF than in nonobese LBF phenotype women. These findings support the hypothesis that body fat distribution may be a better marker of a hormonal pattern associated with increased breast cancer risk than obesity. Obese UBF phenotype AA women, in particular, have a high-risk hormonal profile. Future breast cancer studies might consider controlling for measures of obesity and body fat distribution to minimize confounding.

Adipose Tissue↗