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PubMed2004

The involvement of microsomal oxidases in pyrethroid resistance in Helicoverpa armigera from Asia.

Five contemporary strains of the bollworm Helicoverpa armigera Hübner from China, Pakistan and India, all with high resistance to pyrethroids, were compared with a standard susceptible strain that originated from the Cote D'Ivoire in the 1970s ('SCD'). Two of the Chinese strains ('YGF' and 'YGFP') were derived by laboratory selection from a third, field collected strain ('YG'). The strain 'YG' exhibited 7-, 14- and 21-fold resistance to fenvalerate, cypermethrin and deltamethrin, respectively. After selection with fenvalerate for 14 generations ('YGF'), this increased to 1690-, 540- and 73-fold. Selection with a mixture of fenvalerate and piperonyl butoxide (PBO) for 14 generations ('YGFP') resulted in resistance ratios of 2510, 2920 and 286. The synergistic ratios to fenvalerate that resulted from pre-treatment of PBO were 5-, 462- and 12-fold in YG, YGF and YGFP strains, respectively. Resistance ratios for a Pakistani strain (PAK) were 2320-, 4100- and 223-fold to fenvalerate, cypermethrin and deltamethrin, respectively. The synergistic ratio of PBO to these pyrethroids was 450-, 950- and 11-fold. The strong synergism of pyrethroids by PBO implied that an oxidative metabolism could be involved in pyrethroid resistance in these resistant strains. The activities of cytochrome P450 monooxygenases from midguts of final instar larvae to p-nitroanisole (PNOD), ethoxycoumarin (ECOD), methoxyresorufin (MROD) significantly increased in all the resistant strains when compared with the susceptible strain. This further implies that cytochrome P450 monooxygenases are involved in pyrethroid resistance in Asian H. armigera. Comparative in vitro studies of the metabolism of 14C-deltamethrin by midgut microsomes of the resistant PAK and susceptible SCD strains showed that the resistant strain had a much greater capacity than the susceptible strain for the metabolic degradation of deltamethrin. This enhanced metabolic degradation occurred in the presence of NADPH which suggested an oxidative detoxification. In the resistant strains, minor increases in glutathione S-transferase activity (to the substrates CDNB and DCNB), and esterase activity (to the substrate alpha-naphthyl acetate) further suggested that, of the putative metabolic mechanisms, oxidases are the most important. This study provides the first evidence that cytochrome P450 monooxygenases are a major metabolic mechanism responsible for pyrethroid resistance in H. armigera from Asia.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

Science in the public process of ecosystem management: lessons from Hawaii, Southeast Asia, Africa and the US Mainland.

Partnerships and co-operative environmental management are increasing worldwide as is the call for scientific input in the public process of ecosystem management. In Hawaii, private landowners, non-governmental organizations, and state and federal agencies have formed watershed partnerships to conserve and better manage upland forested watersheds. In this paper, findings of an international workshop convened in Hawaii to explore the strengths of approaches used to assess stakeholder values of environmental resources and foster consensus in the public process of ecosystem management are presented. Authors draw upon field experience in projects throughout Hawaii, Southeast Asia, Africa and the US mainland to derive a set of lessons learned that can be applied to Hawaiian and other watershed partnerships in an effort to promote consensus and sustainable ecosystem management. Interdisciplinary science-based models can serve as effective tools to identify areas of potential consensus in the process of ecosystem management. Effective integration of scientific input in co-operative ecosystem management depends on the role of science, the stakeholders and decision-makers involved, and the common language utilized to compare tradeoffs. Trust is essential to consensus building and the integration of scientific input must be transparent and inclusive of public feedback. Consideration of all relevant stakeholders and the actual benefits and costs of management activities to each stakeholder is essential. Perceptions and intuitive responses of people can be as influential as analytical processes in decision-making and must be addressed. Deliberative, dynamic and iterative decision-making processes all influence the level of stakeholder achievement of consensus. In Hawaii, application of lessons learned can promote more informed and democratic decision processes, quality scientific analysis that is relevant, and legitimacy and public acceptance of ecosystem management.

Africa↗

PubMed2005

Virulence and fitness of the fungal pathogen Entomophaga maimaiga in its host Lymantria dispar, for pathogen and host strains originating from Asia, Europe, and North America.

In this study, we tested (1) whether non-North American gypsy moth strains are susceptible to North American isolates of Entomophaga maimaiga and (2) the potential for erosion in the efficacy of E. maimaiga in controlling gypsy moth. We used bioassays to assess the variability in virulence (measured as time to death) as well as fitness of the pathogen (measured as spore production) in four gypsy strains challenged with six E. maimaiga isolates, using host and pathogen strains originating from Asia, Europe, and North America. We found that all E. maimaiga isolates tested were pathogenic to all strains of Lymantria dispar, regardless of the geographical origin of the fungal isolate, with at least 86% mortality for all combinations of fungal isolate and gypsy moth strain. We therefore conclude that Asian gypsy moths are susceptible to North American strains of E. maimaiga. No significant interactions between fungal isolates and gypsy moth strains with regard to time to death were found, indicating that each fungal isolate had the same overall effect on all the gypsy moth strains tested. However, fungal isolates differed significantly with regard to virulence, with a Russian isolate being the slowest to kill gypsy moth (5.1+/-0.1 days) and a Japanese isolate being the overall fastest to kill its host (4.0+/-0.1 days). Fungal isolates also differed in fitness, with variability in types of spores produced. These differences in virulence and fitness were, however, not correlated with geographical origin of the fungal isolate. Gypsy moth strains had no or only little effect on fungal virulence and fitness. Based on our studies with laboratory-reared gypsy moth strains, erosion of successful control of gypsy moth by E. maimaiga seems unlikely.

Animals↗

PubMed2007

Vitamin D intakes in North America and Asia-Pacific countries are not sufficient to prevent vitamin D insufficiency.

Worldwide, vitamin D status is suboptimal relative to circulating levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25OHD) needed to prevent a variety of chronic conditions, however, it has long been assumed that dietary intake is sufficient to meet needs when sun exposure is limited. In the USA, mean vitamin D intake from foods is close to 5 microg, the Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) recommendation for persons up to 50 years; however, the amount of vitamin D needed to maintain a sufficient 25OHD level during winter is >12.5 microg, and that needed for darkly pigmented, veiled, or sun protected persons is >50 microg. In the USA, most vitamin D intake from foods is provided by fortification. Canada and New Zealand have fewer fortified choices, and intakes are correspondingly lower. Supplement use can increase mean intake to >12.5 microg but does not always reach those who need it most. Serum 25OHD levels in New Zealand reveal much more insufficiency than expected, especially for Pacific people and Mäori; low serum 25OHD concentrations are seen throughout the Asia-Pacific region. Fortification and supplementation may be effective to achieve intakes of 12.5 microg vitamin D in some of the population, but for many achieving the amount needed in the absence of skin synthesis requires intakes above the current upper level for vitamin D of 50 microg.

Asia↗

PubMed2025

Prospective characterisation of drug-resistant bloodstream infections in Africa and Asia (ACORN2): a surveillance network assessment.

BACKGROUND: Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a major global health threat, but there is scarcity of laboratory surveillance data linked to clinical information to determine burden and inform interventions, especially from low-income and middle-income countries. The ACORN2 study sought to address this through prospective case-based surveillance in 19 hospitals across Africa and Asia to characterise drug-resistant infections by origin, clinical syndrome, patient age, outcome, and geographical location. METHODS: Patients were enrolled on selected wards and clinical data were collected daily for community-acquired infections (CAIs). Point prevalence surveys for hospital-acquired infections (HAIs) were conducted weekly. Mortality was assessed at discharge and after 28 days. Linked microbiology data were extracted from local laboratory databases. Primary descriptive analyses focused on WHO Global Antimicrobial Resistance and Use Surveillance System pathogen (target organism) bloodstream infections (BSIs). Comparisons were adjusted for clustering by site using random effects models. FINDINGS: Over 31 months, 41 907 infections were characterised from 41 032 admissions. Two-thirds were children (19 351; 47·2%) or neonates (6649; 16·2%). There were marked differences in pathogen incidence and antibiotic resistance when clinical infections were stratified by patient age category and infection origin (CAI/HAI). The highest rates of target organism AMR BSI were third-generation cephalosporin-resistant (3GC-R) Escherichia coli (718·56/100 000 blood cultured infection episodes), meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (586·89/100 000 blood cultured infection episodes), and 3GC-R Klebsiella pneumoniae (364·92/100 000 blood cultured infection episodes). In-hospital mortality was 13·1% (166/1265) in patients with target organism BSI versus 6·2% (1357/21 845) in those with negative blood cultures, p<0·0001. INTERPRETATION: ACORN2 has shown practical implementation of collecting linked clinical-laboratory AMR data in low-income and middle-income countries and identified a significant burden of WHO GLASS BSI. Adoption of the ACORN2 approach at scale might enhance use of diagnostic microbiology and improve the volume of clinical data included in national and global AMR surveillance datasets. FUNDING: Wellcome.

Humans↗

PubMed2004

Genetic and biological diversity among populations of Leishmania major from Central Asia, the Middle East and Africa.

Evidence is provided for genetic and biological variation among Leishmania major strains that correlates with their geographical origin. The host-parasite relationship also appears to be specific. Great gerbils, Rhombomys opimus, and fat sand rats, Psammomys obesus, are the main reservoir hosts in Central Asia and the Middle East, respectively. However, the Central Asian parasite failed to infect the Middle Eastern rodent host in the laboratory, and vice versa. A permissively primed intergenic polymorphic (PPIP)-PCR and a single-stranded conformation polymorphism (SSCP)-PCR exposed genetic polymorphism among 30 strains of L. major from different geographical regions. This was verified by subsequent sequencing of DNA from the same strains using four genomic targets: (a) the NADH-dehydrogenase (NADH-DH) gene, (b) the 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (6PGD) gene, (c) the ribosomal internal transcribed spacers, and (d) an anonymous DNA sequence originally amplified with random primers. All the genetic markers indicated that the nine Central Asian strains were a separate homogenous genetic group. The Middle Eastern strains formed another geographical group that displayed heterogeneity corresponding with their different Middle Eastern locations. Molecular markers and host-parasite relationships confirmed that Central Asian and Middle Eastern strains are genetically and biologically distinct sub-populations of L. major. Three African strains of L. major were genetically closer to the Middle Eastern strains, and a representative one did infect fat sand rats, but they had distinct permissively primed inter-genic polymorphic PCR patterns and internal transcribed spacer 2 types.

Africa↗

PubMed2005

Present situation of cystic echinococcosis in Central Asia.

Cystic echinococcosis (CE) caused by Echinococcus granulosus has always been an endemic disease in central Asia. During the period of Soviet Administration up to 1991, human surgical incidence rates tended to be relatively low with perhaps at most 1-5 cases per 100,000 per year. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union and the emergence of the New Independent States there has been profound economic and social changes. Associated with this has been a serious epidemic of CE throughout the region. In many areas figures suggest the surgical incidence is now greater than 10 cases per 100,000. Furthermore, official government figures are believed to substantially under report the extent of the problem. For example, official figures in Uzbekistan reported 819 cases of CE surgically treated in 2001. However, a detailed analysis of hospital records suggests that the true figure was 4089, more than 4 fold higher. The latter figure represents an annual surgical incidence rate of nearly 25 cases/100,000 per year. Similarly high endemic areas are seen in southern Kazakhstan, Kyrgystan and Tadjikistan with incidence rates of up to 13 cases/100,000, 20 cases/100,000 and 27 cases/100,000 respectively. A disproportionate number of cases are in children and the unemployed. The rates of infection have also increased in major livestock species such as sheep with a doubling of reported prevalence in some areas. In the dog population, independent studies in Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan have demonstrated that the rural dog population, closely associated with the sheep industry, is highly infected, with prevalences approaching 25%. Village and urban dogs have a considerably lower prevalence.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2005

Distribution and ecology of Echinococcus multilocularis in Central Asia.

Much of Central Asia is characterized by an arid landscape. Foci of Echinococcus multilocularis have a very patchy distribution. This is due to a significant deficiency of moisture in the superficial layers of the ground and is related to the types of animal colonies. In the plain, the abundance of endemic foci increases in a direction from the sandy deserts to steppe. In mountains the highest levels of infection of animals are observed in the eastern part of region. In arid regions, E. multilocularis is typically located in humid mesophilous biotopes. Here there is sufficient moisture in the spring to promote survival of eggs and there is a close interrelation between the definitive and intermediate hosts.

Animals↗

PubMed2006

Controlling lymphatic filariasis and soil-transmitted helminthiasis together in South Asia: opportunities and challenges.

Lymphatic filariasis (LF) and the major soil-transmitted helminth (STH) infections are co-endemic in many countries, particularly in Asia. Control strategies for both groups of infections have increasingly focused on the use of mass chemotherapy. With the use of albendazole, there is now a tool that is common to both. However, there are also important differences in their modes of transmission and epidemiology, and, as a result, in the overall control strategies. The Global Programme for the Elimination of Lymphatic Filariasis aims to eliminate LF through time-limited mass drug administration programmes. Control activities for STH are more diffuse, aiming to piggy-back de-worming onto existing services, such as school health activities; controlling morbidity, rather than eliminating infection, is the stated goal. In order to maximize health benefits to communities that are endemic for one or both of these infections, it is vitally important that policy makers and programme managers have a clear understanding of both commonalities and differences, and implement control strategies that allocate available resources in an optimal manner.

Albendazole↗

PubMed2005

Policymakers' views regarding the introduction of new-generation vaccines against typhoid fever, shigellosis and cholera in Asia.

Face-to-face interviews and meetings with more than 160 policymakers and other influential professionals in seven large Asian countries (Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Pakistan, Thailand and Vietnam) were conducted to survey opinions regarding the need for, and potential uses of new-generation vaccines against cholera, typhoid fever and shigellosis. Despite several barriers to their uptake--notably uncertainty of the burden of enteric diseases; preference for water, sanitation and other environmental improvements over vaccination for disease control; and high prices of the current vaccines relative to basic EPI vaccines, and their moderate protection levels--considerable interest was found in the targeted use of Vi typhoid vaccine in most countries, followed by (future) Shigella and oral cholera vaccines. The introduction of these vaccines in Asia could be greatly facilitated by country-specific evidence of disease burden, local or regional vaccine production, field studies demonstrating their safety and efficacy in local populations, evidence of potential economic savings from vaccination, and effective dissemination of research results to all those who make or influence immunization policy.

Administrative Personnel↗

PubMed2005

Detection of amantadine-resistant variants among avian influenza viruses isolated in North America and Asia.

Here, we report the diversity of amantadine-resistant mutants among avian influenza A viruses with pandemic potential (H5, H6, H7, and H9 hemagglutinin subtypes). Drug-resistant variants were not detected among 1979--83 isolates, whereas 31.1% of H5 and 10.6% of H9 strains from Southeast Asia isolated in 2000-04 carried mutations in M2 protein. In North America, resistant variants occurred among H7 viruses only (16.4% of those tested). H6 viruses were amantadine-sensitive. These findings prompt concern regarding the control of pandemic influenza, the possibility that the next pandemic virus will be amantadine-resistant and the need to monitor the use of the drug in poultry.

Amantadine↗

PubMed2004

Genetic diversity of bluetongue viruses in south east Asia.

Bluetongue viruses (BTV) were isolated from sentinel cattle in Malaysia and at two sites in Indonesia. We identified eight serotypes some of which appeared to have a wide distribution throughout this region, while others were only isolated in Malaysia or Australia. Nearly half of the 24 known BTV serotypes have now been identified in Asia. Further, we investigated the genetic diversity of their RNA segments 3 and 10. Using partial nucleotide sequences of the RNA segment 3 (540 bp) which codes for the conserved core protein (VP3), the BTV isolates were found to be unique to the previously defined Australasian topotype and could be further subdivided into four distinct clades or genotypes. Certain of these genotypes appeared to be geographically restricted while others were distributed widely throughout the region. Similarly, the complete nucleotide sequences of the RNA segment 10 (822 bp), coding for the non-structural protein (NS3/3A), were also conserved and grouped into the five genotypes; the BTV isolates could be grouped into three Asian genotypes and two Nth American/Sth African genotypes.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed2006

Spatial and seasonal variations in the water quality of the Amu Darya River (Central Asia).

Although the use of the water resources in Uzbekistan is strongly limited by their quality, it has to be noted that there is a lack of information and data within the international scientific literature with regard to the water chemical characteristics of the Amu Darya River, one of the main water resources in Central Asia. To add to such knowledge, this paper examines the spatial and temporal variation of the water quality of the Amu Darya River in order to assess its degree of degradation and the main causal factors. The functional relationships of the pollutants with respect to the flow regime are investigated. Finally an "opportune temporal window" for water withdrawal for filling the reservoirs, in relation to human consumption, will be indicated. The high salinization levels of the waters are mainly due to the presence of sulphates and chlorine. At the up-stream site salinity, although presenting elevated concentrations, does not exceed palatability levels; after the 450 km point the opportune temporal window for water withdrawal with acceptable salinity values is reduced to the period from May to September. Two main driving forces govern the temporal variation of the salinity of the Amu Darya water: a low drainage density of the area which limits the salt loads induced by the natural runoff processes, and snow and glacier melting in the upper catchment area which promotes dilution of the dissolved salts during the high-flow period. During low-flow periods salinity is strongly influenced by the return of waters used for land washing and irrigation.

Asia↗

PubMed1999

Early experience with partial left ventriculectomy in the Asia-Pacific region.

BACKGROUND: We report our early experience with partial left ventriculectomy done by a group of cardiac surgeons in the Asia-Pacific region. METHODS: Partial left ventriculectomy was done in 48 patients (mean age, 43 years) with advanced symptomatic cardiomyopathy. The origin of cardiomyopathy was idiopathic in 30 patients, valvular in 10, ischemic in 3, peripartum in 3, sarcoidosis in 1, and viral myocarditis in 1. Procedures performed on the mitral valve were repair with Alfieri method in 8 patients, ring annuloplasty in 2, and replacement in 25. RESULTS: Seventy-seven percent of patients required myocardial support for weaning from cardiopulmonary bypass, and the overall in-hospital mortality rate was 27%. Mean follow up was 6.5 months (range, 1 to 18 months), and patient survival at 1, 3, and 6 months after discharge was 91%, 88%, and 84%, respectively. Sixty-five percent of survivors with idiopathic and valvular disease achieved significant and sustained improvement in ventricular contractility and symptoms, but there were no clear symptomatic benefits from partial left ventriculectomy in patients with cardiomyopathy from other causes. Most cases of late recurrence of heart failure symptoms (90%) appeared to be related to the development of progressive mitral incompetence. CONCLUSIONS: After partial left ventriculectomy left ventricular function improved in patients with idiopathic and valve related cardiomyopathies. Late deterioration was related to the development of significant mitral valve incompetence postoperatively, hence definitive mitral valve repair or replacement at the time of the partial left ventriculectomy procedure is advised.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1997

Control of parasites in cultured marine finfishes in Southeast Asia--an overview.

Mariculture in Southeast Asia began in the 1970s and expanded rapidly during the 1980s, with the commercial hatchery production of the seabass Lates calcarifer. Other important cultured species were Epinephelus coioides, Epinephelus malabaricus, Lutjanus johni, and Lutjanus argentimaculatus. Intensification in the polyculture of these species and the large-scale international movement of fingerlings or juveniles, as well as the rapid expansion and concentration of fish farms, have caused severe problems resulting from parasitic infections. Infections in maricultured fish are predominantly caused by monoxenous parasites, in particular the capsalid and diplectanid monogeneans. Heteroxenous blood parasites also successfully maintained transmission in the culture system despite their requirement for an intermediate host. Prophylactic chemical treatments helped to reduce parasitic infection but did not eliminate them and once introduced into the floating netcage culture system, these parasites managed to maintain their transmission successfully. Despite the current lack of information regarding the biology of many parasites affecting cultured marine fishes, it nevertheless is possible to develop methodologies to produce an integrated health management system specifically designed to the needs of the mariculture practiced in the Southeast Asian region. This system is important and should include a sequence of prophylaxes, adequate nutrition, sanitation, immunization and an effective system of marketing for farmed fishes.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

Acid-rain monitoring in east Asia with a portable-type ion-exclusion-cation-exchange chromatographic analyzer.

A monitoring system consisting of a portable-type conductimetric ion-exclusion-cation-exchange chromatographic (CEC) analyzer and a meteorological satellite data analyzer has been investigated for the evaluation of the effects of acid precipitation on natural and urban environments in East Asia. The portable ion-exclusion-CEC analyzer uses a polymethacrylate-based weakly acidic cation-exchange resin column in the H(+)-form and a weak-acid eluent (tartaric acid-methanol-water) and is applied for the simultaneous determination of anions (SO4(2)-, NO3-, and Cl-) and cations (Na+, NH4+, K+, Mg2+, and Ca2+) in precipitation transported from mainland China to central Japan, as mapped by the meteorological satellite data analyzer. Linear calibration graphs of peak area versus concentration for anions and cations were observed in the concentration range 0-1.0 mM for the anions and 0-0.5 mM for the cations. Detection limits at a signal-to-noise ratio of 3 were in the range 5.18-12.1 ppb for the anions and 6.58-16.5 ppb for the cations. The practical utility of this monitoring system is presented.

Acid Rain↗

PubMed2003

Asia-Pacific mussel watch: monitoring contamination of persistent organochlorine compounds in coastal waters of Asian countries.

Contamination of persistent organochlorines (OCs) such as PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls), DDT and its metabolites (DDTs), HCH (hexachlorocyclohexane) isomers (HCHs), chlordane compounds (CHLs), and HCB (hexachlorobenzene) were examined in mussels collected from coastal waters of Asian countries such as Cambodia, China, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Philippines, Far East Russia, Singapore, and Vietnam in 1994, 1997, 1998, 1999, and 2001 to elucidate the contamination status, distribution and possible pollution sources and to assess the risks on aquatic organisms and human. OCs were detected in all mussels collected from all the sampling sites investigated. Considerable residue levels of p,p(')-DDT and alpha-HCH were found in mussels and the concentrations of DDTs and HCHs found in mussels from Asian developing countries were higher than those in developed nations suggesting present usage of DDTs and HCHs along the coastal waters of Asian developing countries. On the other hand, lower concentrations of PCBs detected in mussels from Asian developing countries than those in developed countries indicate that PCBs contamination in mussels is strongly related to industrial and activities. To our knowledge, this is a first comprehensive report on monitoring OCs pollution in the Asia-Pacific region.

Animals↗

PubMed2003

Marine and coastal environmental awareness building within the context of UNESCO's activities in Asia and the Pacific.

UNESCO is one of the specialized agencies under the United Nations charged with the advancement and improvement of education, social and natural sciences, culture and communication. This global mandate translates into programmes in the field tailored to the member states' specific requirements that build on the full breadth of expertise available in UNESCO. Environmental awareness building is an integral component of many of UNESCO's programmes. This paper describes how UNESCO addresses the need for awareness building in a variety of settings under different programmes and sectors. A first example is taken from the work of the education sector, which aims at introducing innovative learning methods and curricula that change or cultivate the perspective of people of all ages on sustainable development. The second example is taken from the Man and Biosphere Programme. The Biosphere Reserve concept has had a long history within UNESCO and is increasingly applied to protected areas in the coastal zone. Notable examples are Ranong Biosphere Reserve in Thailand, Can Gio Biosphere Reserve in Vietnam and the Island of Palawan in the Philippines. The concept is currently experiencing a revival as more and more countries realize the importance of striking a balance between human development and strict conservation. Many people know about UNESCO through the so-called World Heritage Sites. These are sites that are recognized by the world community as particular monuments, either natural or cultural, that warrant preservation for the whole of mankind. In the Asia-Pacific region, there are quite a number of coastal and marine sites that have been designated as natural world heritage sites, e.g. Halong Bay in Vietnam, the Komodo marine national park, Indonesia, the Great Barrier Reef in Australia, East-Rennell Island in the Solomon Islands, and Tubbataha Reef in the Philippines. The need for a cross-sectoral approach is evident under the so-called Coastal Zone and Small Islands endeavour, which aims at assisting Member States towards environmentally sound, socially equitable and culturally appropriate development in coastal regions and in small islands. Four examples of current pilot projects (Surin Island, Thailand, Jakarta Bay, Indonesia, Upolo Island, Samoa and Ulugan Bay, the Philippines) are highlighted. Each setting and each audience requires a different strategy. UNESCO's strength is to learn from all these experiences and make such new insights universally available and to put novel concepts into practice.

Animals↗