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PubMed2003

Longevity and health care expenditures: the real reasons older people spend more.

OBJECTIVES: In this study, we investigated the relative contributions of both age and time to death to health care expenditures for elderly Medicare beneficiaries. We also analyzed differences in expenditure patterns by age and time to death for various service types and payers. METHODS: We conducted graphical analysis of person-month level data on 25,994 elderly persons from the 1992-1998 Medicare Current Beneficiary Survey Cost and Use files. RESULTS: Monthly health care expenditures for elderly people increase substantially with age primarily because mortality rates increase with age and health care expenditures increase with closeness to death. Time to death is the main reason for higher inpatient care expenditures, whereas aging is the main reason for higher long-term care expenditure. DISCUSSION: Both increases in the absolute number of elderly persons and in their longevity will increase future Medicare expenditures. Yet, the expected increase in per person health care expenditures caused by greater longevity of Medicare beneficiaries will be less than expected because of the concentration of expenditures at the end of life rather than during extra years of a relatively healthy life. The latter conclusion may be altered, however, because of other underlying considerations, such as technological change.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1979

Longevity and age exaggeration in Vilcabamba, Ecuador.

Systematic age exaggeration was found after age 70 in an Equadorian population noted for extreme longevity. Extreme ages (over 100 years) were either incorrect or unsubstantiated. There was no evidence of increased longevity in the Vilcabamba population.

Adult↗
PubMed1984

Male longevity and age differences between spouses.

Analysis of mortality estimates and adjusted census data showed that men aged 70 to 79 married to younger women tended to live longer than men married to older women. The standard mortality ratio for 50-year-old husbands with younger wives was 90, whereas it was 112 for husbands with older wives. For 70-year-old men the comparable values were 80 and 133. Thus the mortality risk associated with marriage to a younger woman was clearly less than that associated with marriage to an older woman. Two possible explanations were advanced for this relationship: (a) premarital selection factors may be related to longevity, and (b) psychological, physiological, or social factors associated with longevity may be enhanced by marriage to a younger woman.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1985

Nutritional influences on aging of Fischer 344 rats: I. Physical, metabolic, and longevity characteristics.

The aims of this research were (a) to compare food restriction initiated in adult life of male Fischer 344 rats with that limited to early life or involving most of the life span on physical, metabolic, and longevity characteristics and (b) to study a similar level of protein restriction without caloric restriction on these characteristics. Food restriction (60% of the ad libitum intake) initiated at 6 months of age markedly increased life span as did a similar restriction started at 6 weeks of age, but food restriction limited to early life (6 weeks to 6 months of age) and protein restriction caused only a small increase in longevity. Food restriction does not act by reducing the intake of calories or other nutrient per gram of body mass, a finding not in accord with classic views. A progressive decrease in spontaneous locomotive activity with age occurred in ad libitum fed but not restricted rats.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1991

The association of ancestral longevity with successful aging.

A cohort of 184 men from socioeconomically advantaged ancestors has been followed from ages 18 to 65. In order to test the hypothesis that ancestral longevity would predict both mental and physical vigor, the men's physical and psychosocial health have been prospectively monitored, and the age at death of their parents and grandparents obtained. Ancestral longevity was strongly predictive of chronic illness at age 60 +/- 1 years and mortality at age 68 +/- 1 years. Long-lived ancestors, however, exerted little effect in predicting psychosocial vigor and mental health at age 65.

Affect↗
PubMed1993

Longevity is moderately heritable in a sample of Danish twins born 1870-1880.

The heritability of human longevity was investigated in a sample of 218 pairs of monozygotic (MZ) and 382 pairs of like-sex dizygotic (DZ) Danish twin pairs born 1870-1880. Twin similarity for age at death was significant for MZ twins but nonsignificant for DZ twins. The heritability (h2) of life span estimated from the best-fitting biometrical model was statistically significant but moderate in magnitude (h2 = .333 +/- .058). Heritability of longevity did not vary by gender, and the pattern of twin resemblance was more consistent with nonadditive as compared to additive genetic effects. In addition, evidence for a genetic association between premature and senescent deaths was observed. Although environmental factors accounted for a majority of the variance in life span, the relevant environmental factors appeared to be those that create differences rather than similarities among reared-together relatives. Findings are discussed in terms of their relevance for understanding the inheritance and evolution of human life span.

Aged↗
PubMed1990

Longevity and fecundity of Musca domestica (Diptera: Muscidae) as a function of temperature.

Longevity and fecundity of adult house flies were determined at constant temperatures of 20, 25, 30, and 35 degrees C. At the four temperatures, respectively, the median mortality rates (1/days to 50% mortality) for females were 0.023, 0.041, 0.060, and 0.099 and for males were 0.029, 0.047, 0.066, and 0.085. The numbers of days for 50% of the eggs to be deposited for each temperature were 34.5, 21.3, 10.2 and 7.1, respectively. The total numbers of eggs deposited per female for each temperature were 184, 729, 709, and 506, respectively. Models were developed for longevity and fecundity and their distributions as functions of temperature.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Effects of temperature and humidity on oviposition, molting, and longevity of Dermanyssus gallinae (Acari: Dermanyssidae).

The juvenile development and survival of Dermanyssus gallinae (De Geer) kept in vitro at different temperatures and humidity were investigated to obtain biological baseline data for a Swedish population. Individual females, eggs, larvae, and protonymphs were observed with regard to egg production, duration of various stages, and longevity when kept at different temperatures and relative humidities. Female mites laid eggs at temperatures between 5 and 45 degrees C with the highest numbers laid at 20 degrees C and 70% RH, but development to larvae and protonymphs was only observed at temperatures ranging from 20 to 25 degrees C. The average duration of oviposition varied from 1.0 to 3.2 d within the temperature range 20-45 degrees C but was gradually increased to 28 d at 5 degrees C. Specimens survived for up to 9 mo without access to food when kept in the temperature range of 5-25 degrees C. Temperatures > 45 degrees C and at -20 degrees C were found to be lethal. Longevity was similar for females and protonymphs kept at 30 and 45% RH, but it was enhanced at 70 and 90% RH for protonymphs. This study showed that D. gallinae can survive for a long time without feeding if the microclimate is suitable, but it does not thrive at low relative humidities and at temperature extremes. This indicates that changing of the abiotic conditions in infested poultry houses could be a possible measure to reduce mite populations.

Animals↗
PubMed1986

The retardation of aging in mice by dietary restriction: longevity, cancer, immunity and lifetime energy intake.

We sought to clarify the impact of dietary restriction (undernutrition without malnutrition) on aging. Female mice from a long-lived strain were fed after weaning in one of six ways: group 1) a nonpurified diet ad libitum; 2) 85 kcal/wk of a purified diet (approximately 25% restriction); 3) 50 kcal/wk of a restricted purified diet enriched in protein, vitamin and mineral content to provide nearly equal intakes of these essentials as in group 2 (approximately 55% restriction); 4) as per group 3, but also restricted before weaning; 5) 50 kcal/wk of a vitamin- and mineral-enriched diet but with protein intake gradually reduced over the life span; 6) 40 kcal/wk of the diet fed to groups 3 and 4 (approximately 65% restriction). Mice from groups 3-6 exhibited mean and maximal life spans 35-65% greater than for group 1 and 20-40% greater than for group 2. Mice from group 6 lived longest of all. The longest lived 10% of mice from group 6 averaged 53.0 mo which, to our knowledge, exceeds reported values for any mice of any strain. Beneficial influences on tumor patterns and on declines with age in T-lymphocyte proliferation were most striking in group 6. Significant positive correlations between adult body weight and longevity occurred in groups 3-5 suggesting that increased metabolic efficiency may be related to longevity in restricted mice. Mice from groups 3-6 ate approximately 30% more calories per gram of mouse over the life span than did mice from group 2. These findings show the profound anti-aging effects of dietary restriction and provide new information for optimizing restriction regimes.

Aging↗
PubMed1990

The association between change in cognitive function and longevity in Dutch elderly.

The association between rate of change in cognitive function and longevity was investigated with data from the Dutch Longitudinal Study Among the Elderly. A group of 211 Dutch persons aged 65-84 years at baseline (1955-1957) was reexamined twice during an 8-year follow-up period, after which mortality was ascertained through 1983. Cognitive function was assessed based on an adaptation of the Wechsler Memory Scale. Rate of change in cognitive function during the 8 years of follow-up was determined by regression on time for each individual. Cognitive function declined significantly over the 8-year period (mean yearly change, -0.28 units; 95% confidence interval -0.34 to -0.22). The rate of decline in cognitive function was strongly associated with subsequent survival time in the ages 70 years and over, with those with a large decline having a short survival time. No association could be demonstrated in the age group 65-69 years. Adjustment for potential confounders did not affect the magnitude of the association. These findings suggest that the rate of decline of cognitive function is an independent predictor of longevity in older persons.

Aged↗
PubMed2005

PeMADS6, a GLOBOSA/PISTILLATA-like gene in Phalaenopsis equestris involved in petaloid formation, and correlated with flower longevity and ovary development.

In this study, we isolated and characterized the function of a GLOBOSA/PISTILLATA-like gene, PeMADS6, from a native Phalaenopsis species, P. equestris. Southern blot analysis showed PeMADS6 as a single copy in the Phalaenopsis genome. Results of the determination of temporal and spatial expression showed that PeMADS6 was expressed and thus participated in the development of the sepals, petals, labellum and column in Phalaenopsis. Further confirmation of the expression pattern of PeMADS6 was carried out with in situ hybridization. Repressed expression of PeMADS6 in the orchid ovary was found to be pollination regulated, which suggests that the gene may have an inhibitory effect on the development of the ovary or ovule. In addition, auxin acted as the candidate signal to regulate the repression of PeMADS6 expression in the ovary. Furthermore, the flowers of transgenic Arabidopsis plants ectopically overexpressing PeMADS6 showed the morphology of petaloid sepals, with a 3- to 4-fold increase in flower longevity. Concomitantly, delayed fruit maturation was also observed in the transgenic Arabidopsis, which is consistent with the inhibitory effect of PeMADS6 on the development of the ovary. Thus, as a B-function gene, PeMADS6, not only specifies floral organ identity but has functions in flower longevity and ovary development in orchids.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed2001

Effect of genetic selection for group productivity and longevity on immunological and hematological parameters of chickens.

A line of White Leghorn chickens was selected for high group productivity and longevity resulting in improved survival and feather score as well as reduced cannibalism and flightiness. Improvements in survival might have also been due to improved immunity. The present study was designed to test the hypothesis that selection for high (HGPS) and low (LGPS) group productivity and survivability also altered immune and hematological parameters. The LGPS line was an intense reverse selected line of the HGPS line at the eighth generation of development. Hens were randomly assigned to individual cages at 17 wk of age. Blood samples were collected from the hens at 21 wk of age. Subsets of T lymphocytes (CD4+, CD8+, and gammadelta cells) were measured using flow cytometry. Concentrations of plasma IgG were quantified with western blot analysis and immunoprecipitation assay. Hematological parameters were collected from blood smears. The HGPS hens had significantly higher percentages of blood lymphocytes and CD4+:CD8+ ratios of circulating T cells (P < 0.01) and tended to have more, but not significantly, gammadelta T cells (P = 0.07) than the LGPS hens. In contrast, the LGPS hens exhibited eosinophilia and heterophilia and greater heterophil:lymphocyte ratios (P < 0.01). The concentrations of plasma IgG were also significantly higher in the LGPS hens (P < 0.01). These results suggest that genetic selection for group productivity and longevity also alters the immunological and hematological systems of hens. The line difference in regulation of T cells, leukocytes, and production of IgG may suggest that different genes or modes of gene action are involved.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Postovulatory aging of oocytes decreases reproductive fitness and longevity of offspring.

We analyzed the long-term effects of postovulatory aging of mouse oocytes on reproductive fitness and longevity of offspring. Hybrid (C57BL/6JIco x CBA/JIco) parental generation (F0) females were artificially inseminated at 13 h (approximately 1 h postovulation) or 22 h (approximately 10 h postovulation) after GnRH injection. Reproductive fitness of first generation (F1) females was tested from the age of 28 wk until the end of their reproductive life. In males, the testing period ranged from the age of 2 yr until their natural death. Experimental F1 females exhibited longer between-labor intervals, decreased frequency of litters, and lower total number of litters and offspring born. Experimental second generation (F2) pups displayed teratogenic defects, higher preweaning mortality, and decreased body weight at weaning. Incidence of infertility was higher in experimental F1 males, which translated into lower total number of offspring born when compared with the control group. Life expectancy of F1 offspring was decreased in the experimental group. These results clearly show that postovulatory aging of mouse oocytes decreases reproductive fitness and longevity of offspring.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Mitochondrial DNA inherited variants are associated with successful aging and longevity in humans.

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is characterized by high variability, maternal inheritance, and absence of recombination. Studies of human populations have revealed ancestral associated polymorphisms whose combination defines groups of mtDNA types (haplogroups) that are currently used to reconstruct human evolution lineages. We used such inherited mtDNA markers to compare mtDNA population pools between a sample of individuals selected for successful aging and longevity (212 subjects older than 100 years and in good clinical condition) and a sample of 275 younger individuals (median age 38 years) carefully matched as to sex and geographic origin (northern and southern Italy). All nine haplogroups that are typical of Europeans were found in both samples, but male centenarians emerged in northern Italy as a particular sample: 1) mtDNA haplogroup frequency distribution was different between centenarians and younger individuals (P=0.017 by permutation tests); and 2) the frequency of the J haplogroup was notably higher in centenarians than in younger individuals (P=0.0052 by Fisher exact test). Since haplogroups are defined on the basis of inherited variants, these data show that mtDNA inherited variability could play a role in successful aging and longevity.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Mediterranean diet and longevity.

While several investigations have focused on the association between individual foods and nutrients upon the development of chronic diseases, few have examined the role that entire dietary patterns may play in health and disease. A dietary pattern generally considered to have beneficial health effects is that of the Mediterranean diet. In this paper, five cohort studies exploring the association of Mediterranean diet with overall mortality and hence longevity are reviewed. A number of conclusions can be drawn. First, there appears to exist sufficient evidence that diet does indeed influence longevity. Secondly, an optimal diet for the prevention of both coronary heart disease and cancer is likely to extensively overlap with the traditional Mediterranean diet. It is not yet clear which components in the Mediterranean diet are more important for its apparent health effects, but olive oil, plant foods and moderate wine consumption are likely candidates.

Cohort Studies↗
PubMed2004

Predation risk and longevity influence variation in fitness of female roe deer (Capreolus capreolus L.).

We studied the effects of population density, red fox predation risk, individual body mass and longevity on female fitness in a free-ranging roe deer population. During the study, population density varied from 9.3 to 36.1 deer km(-2), and red fox abundance varied strongly over years owing to a sarcoptic mange outbreak. In support of our predictions, long-lived females had higher fitness than short-lived ones. Further, fortunate female roe deer that gave birth in years of low red fox abundance attained much higher fitness than those that gave birth in years of high red fox abundance. Longevity and predation risk explained more than half the variation in fitness observed among roe deer females. As a possible effect of small sample size, we found no effect of female body mass or population density at birth. Our study demonstrates that predation risk, a component of environmental stochasticity, may prevent directional selection even when phenotypic quality influences individual fitness.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

The longevity of Caenorhabditis elegans in soil.

Relatively simple model organisms such as yeast, fruit-flies and the nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans, have proven to be invaluable resources in biological studies. An example is the widespread use of C. elegans to investigate the complex process of ageing. An important issue when interpreting results from these studies is the similarity of the observed C. elegans mortality pattern in the laboratory to that expected in its natural environment. We found that the longevity of C. elegans under more natural conditions is reduced up to 10-fold compared with standard laboratory culture conditions. Additionally, C. elegans mutants that live twice as long as wild-type worms in laboratory conditions typically die sooner than wild-type worms in a natural soil. These results indicate that conclusions regarding extended longevity drawn from standard laboratory assays may not extend to animals in their native environment.

Animals↗
PubMed1979

The evolution of ageing and longevity.

Ageing is not adaptive since it reduces reproductive potential, and the argument that it evolved to provide offspring with living space is hard to sustain for most species. An alternative theory is based on the recognition that the force of natural selection declines with age, since in most environments individuals die from predation, disease or starvation. Ageing could therefore be the combined result of late-expressed deleterious genes which are beyond the reach of effective negative selection. However, this argument is circular, since the concept of 'late expression' itself implies the prior existence of adult age-related physiological processes. Organisms that do not age are essentially in a steady state in which chronologically young and old individuals are physiologically the same. In this situation the synthesis of macromolecules must be sufficiently accurate to prevent error feedback and the development of lethal 'error catastrophes'. This involves the expenditure of energy, which is required for both kinetic proof-reading and other accuracy promoting devices. It may be selectively advantageous for higher organisms to adopt an energy saving strategy of reduced accuracy in somatic cells to accelerate development and reproduction, but the consequence will be eventual deterioration and death. This 'disposable soma' theory of the evolution of ageing also proposes that a high level of accuracy is maintained in immortal germ line cells, or alternatively, that any defective germ cells are eliminated. The evolution of an increase in longevity in mammals may be due to a concomitant reduction in the rates of growth and reproduction and an increase in the accuracy of synthesis of macromolecules. The theory can be tested by measuring accuracy in germ line and somatic cells and also by comparing somatic cells from mammals with different longevities.

Adaptation, Biological↗