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PubMed2006

Serotyping of Toxoplasma gondii in chronically infected pregnant women: predominance of type II in Europe and types I and III in Colombia (South America).

Isolates of Toxoplasma gondii, which is responsible for a wide range of clinical manifestations are grouped into three clonal lineages of different virulence in mice. However, it is not clear whether this genotypic pattern is associated with the clinical profile of the disease in humans nor is the geographical distribution of the genotypes known. This is mainly due to difficulties in obtaining parasitic DNA from patients. The available data are therefore limited and originate from acute or congenital infections or from animals. A non-invasive assay is needed to address issues of strain type, geographical distribution and severity of clinical toxoplasmosis. To serotype T. gondii strains, we have developed an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) that uses polymorphic polypeptides specific to the three clonal lineages and derived from two dense granule antigens, GRA5 and GRA6. Two hundred and fifty-two sera from chronically infected pregnant women from three different European countries and Colombia were investigated. The analysis of genotype-specific antibody response showed a homogeneous type II distribution in the European samples compared with types I and III but no type II in the Colombian population. Our data concord with those obtained from the genotyping of other isolates from Europe and South America. We demonstrated that, despite some limitation due to antigen and/or antibody specificity, serotyping is a promising assay to investigate the relationship between type of strain and severity of the disease.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed2000

Identification of a siderophore receptor required for ferric ornibactin uptake in Burkholderia cepacia.

Ornibactins are linear hydroxamate siderophores produced by Burkholderia cepacia with peptide structures similar to that of pyoverdines produced by the fluorescent pseudomonads. The gene encoding the outer membrane receptor (orbA) was identified, sequenced, and demonstrated to have significant homology with hydroxamate receptors produced by other organisms. The orbA precursor was predicted to be a protein with a molecular mass of 81 kDa. An orbA mutant was constructed and demonstrated to be unable to take up (59)Fe-ornibactins or to grow in medium supplemented with ornibactins. Outer membrane protein profiles from the parent strain, K56-2, revealed an iron-regulated outer membrane protein of 78 kDa that was not detectable in the K56orbA::tp mutant. When this mutant harbored a plasmid containing the orbA gene, the 78-kDa protein was present in the outer membrane protein profiles and the mutant was able to utilize ornibactin to acquire iron. The orbA mutant was less virulent in a chronic respiratory infection model than the parent strain, indicating that ornibactin uptake and utilization are important in the pathogenesis of B. cepacia respiratory infections.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed2006

Regulation of rugosity and biofilm formation in Vibrio cholerae: comparison of VpsT and VpsR regulons and epistasis analysis of vpsT, vpsR, and hapR.

Vibrio cholerae undergoes phenotypic variation that generates two morphologically different variants, termed smooth and rugose. The transcriptional profiles of the two variants differ greatly, and many of the differentially regulated genes are controlled by a complex regulatory circuitry that includes the transcriptional regulators VpsR, VpsT, and HapR. In this study, we identified the VpsT regulon and compared the VpsT and VpsR regulons to elucidate the contribution of each positive regulator to the rugose variant transcriptional profile and associated phenotypes. We have found that although the VpsT and VpsR regulons are very similar, the magnitude of the gene regulation accomplished by each regulator is different. We also determined that cdgA, which encodes a GGDEF domain protein, is partially responsible for the altered vps gene expression between the vpsT and vpsR mutants. Analysis of epistatic relationships among hapR, vpsT, and vpsR with respect to a whole-genome expression profile, colony morphology, and biofilm formation revealed that vpsR is epistatic to hapR and vpsT. Expression of virulence genes was increased in a vpsR hapR double mutant relative to a hapR mutant, suggesting that VpsR negatively regulates virulence gene expression in the hapR mutant. These results show that a complex regulatory interplay among VpsT, VpsR, HapR, and GGDEF/EAL family proteins controls transcription of the genes required for Vibrio polysaccharide and virulence factor production in V. cholerae.

Bacterial Proteins↗
PubMed1998

Computer-assisted restriction endonuclease analysis of plasmid DNA in field strains of Salmonella enteritidis.

Computer-assisted restriction endonuclease analysis of plasmid DNA in field strains of Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis (S. enteritidis) is described. The procedure consists of plasmid DNA purification, its digestion with restriction endonuclease TaqI, electrophoresis, charge-coupled device camera scanning of the gels, and an analysis of the restriction patterns with the software Gel Manager. The system allowed us to analyse, in detail, results of plasmid profiling in more than 600 field strains of S. enteritidis. In addition to plasmid-free and virulence plasmid only containing strains, 15 additional plasmid types were detected. All the images and detailed protocols are available at the Web site http://www.clark.cz/vri/salmon.htm.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

A phase I trial of genetically modified Salmonella typhimurium expressing cytosine deaminase (TAPET-CD, VNP20029) administered by intratumoral injection in combination with 5-fluorocytosine for patients with advanced or metastatic cancer. Protocol no: CL-017. Version: April 9, 2001.

An attenuated strain of Salmonella typhimurium, designated VNP20009, was generated by deletion of the msbB and purl genes. When VNP20009 was administered intravenously (IV) to mice bearing spontaneous, syngeneic, or human xenograft tumors, the bacteria accumulated preferentially within the extracellular components of tumors, forming tumor-to-normal tissue ratios exceeding 300-1000 to 1. NVP20009 was administered safely at doses up to 2.5 x 10(9) cfu/kg in monkey toxicology studies. Based on the preclinical data, VNP20009 entered Phase I human clinical trials in November 1999, and has now been administered to >45 patients by IV or direct intratumoral injection. By the intratumoral route, a maximum tolerated dose has not been reached, and dose escalation continues past the current dose level of 4 x 10(7)/m2. Furthermore, VNP20009 persisted in injected tumors for at least 2 weeks in 8/11 patients treated to date. By 30-min IV administration, a maximum tolerated dose (MTD) of 3 X 10(8) cfu/m2 has been established. In all patients treated to date, VNP20009 was not shed in urine or stool. VNP20009 has been further modified by chromosomal insertion of an E. coli cytosine deaminase (CD) gene at the deltamsbB locus which, when expressed, converts 5-fluorocytosine (5-FC) to 5-fluorouracil (5-FU). The CD containing VNP20009 was designated TAPET-CD or VNP20029. TAPET-CD had similar efficacy and safety in murine tumor models and similar safety profiles in animal toxicology studies, compared to its parent VNP20009. Specifically, TAPET-CD had a reduced virulence of >10,000 fold, when compared to the wild-type Salmonella strain. It was well-tolerated at doses up to 2 x 10(6) cfu/mouse and 1 X 10(10) cfu/monkey. After an IV or direct tumor injection to tumor-bearing mice, TAPET-CD reached tumor levels as high as 10(8)-10(9) cfu/gm. When compared to the accumulation in liver or spleen, the normal tissues with the greatest colonization of TAPET-CD, tumor-to-normal tissue ratios of TAPET-CD were 300-1000 to 1. TAPET-CD also caused tumor growth inhibition of >90% in several murine tumor models. When 5-FC was administered by intraperitoneal (IP) injection once or 3 times daily to tumor-bearing mice that had been pre-treated with TAPET-CD, high levels of 5-FU (reaching 20-40 microM/g) were detected in the tumor, with low or undetectable 5-FU levels in normal tissues (e.g., spleen, liver, etc.). Furthermore, co-administration of 5-FC and TAPET-CD in 4 different murine tumor models enhanced anti-tumor activity compared to the significant anti-tumor activity of TAPET-CD alone, further confirming the benefit of the inserted CD gene. On the basis of the preclinical data, a Phase I clinical protocol is proposed in which advanced cancer patients will receive TAPET-CD by direct intratumoral injection and 5-FC. TAPET-CD will be administered on day 1. 5-FC will be given orally q8h daily beginning day 4 or when all toxicities of TAPET-CD have resolved to < or = grade 1, and continued for 14 days. Tumor tissues will be sampled to verify TAPET-CD colonization and to measure intratumoral 5-FC and 5-FU concentrations on day 8. A second sample of tumor tissue will be obtained between day 15-17 in selected patients to confirm the persistence of high levels of bacteria in tumor and to obtain a second measurement of 5-FC and 5-FU intra-tumoral concentrations. The TAPET-CD/5-FC treatment cycle will be repeated in appropriate patients on day 29.

Acyltransferases↗
PubMed1994

Characterization of Vibrio anguillarum strains isolated from diseased fish in Finland.

Characterization of V. anguillarum strains (n = 109) isolated from diseased salmonids was performed. Eight O serovars were found among the strains. Serovar O1 was predominant (90%), while serovars O2, O3, O5, O8, O9, and a new serovar Va NT2, were represented by 1 or 2 strains. Two strains remained non-typeable. One of these was cross-reactive with several antisera, but had a LPS profile identical to that of serovar O8. All serovars showed specific LPS profiles. All but 1 of the O1 strains had a plasmid comparable in size to the pJM1 virulence plasmid, while plasmids of different sizes were found in O2, Va NT2 and the non-typeable strains. Apart from a single strain resistant to tetracycline, all the strains were sensitive to oxolinic acid, tetracycline, and trimethoprim-sulfonamides. By their biochemical and antigenic properties strains causing vibriosis among salmonids in Finland closely resemble Scandinavian strains. Predominance of the serovars O1 and O2 suggests that commercial vaccines containing these serovars should afford sufficient protection against vibriosis in Finland.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

Characterization of a polysaccharide capsular antigen of septicemic Escherichia coli O115:K "V165" :F165 and evaluation of its role in pathogenicity.

Escherichia coli strains of serogroup O115:K(-):F165 have been associated with septicemia in calves and piglets. These strains express a capsular antigen referred to as K"V165" which inhibits agglutination of the O antigen by anti-O115 serum. We used hybrid transposon TnphoA mutants M48, 18b, and 2, and a spontaneous O-agglutinable mutant, 5131a, to evaluate the role of K"V165" in the pathogenicity of E. coli O115. Mutant M48 was as resistant to 90% rabbit serum and as virulent in day-old chickens as the parent strain 5131, mutants 18b and 5131a were less resistant to serum and less virulent in chickens, and mutant 2 was serum sensitive and avirulent. Analysis of outer membrane protein and lipopolysaccharide profiles failed to show any difference between the transposon mutants and the parent strain. In contrast, the spontaneous O-agglutinable mutant showed additional bands in the 16-kDa region of the polysaccharide ladder-like pattern. Mutants 2 and 5131a produced significantly less K"V165" capsular antigen than the parent strain, as demonstrated by a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay with adsorbed anti-K"V165" serum. In addition, electron microscopic analysis revealed that mutants 2 and 5131a had lost the capsular layer observed in the parent strain after fixation with glutaraldehyde-lysine. This capsule contained carbohydrate compounds and resembled an O-antigen capsule since it prevented O-antigen agglutination before the bacteria were heated at 100 degrees C and induced bacterial serum resistance. The capsule-defective mutants colonized the intestinal epithelium of experimentally infected gnotobiotic pigs but failed to induce clinical signs of septicemia. We concluded that E. coli strains of serogroup O115 expressed a polysaccharide capsular antigen which induced serum resistance and consequently contributed to the pathogenicity of the bacteria.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Characterization of Pasteurella multocida isolates from wetland ecosystems during 1996 to 1999.

We cultured 126 Pasteurella multocida isolates, 92 from water and 34 from sediment samples collected from wetlands in the Pacific and Central flyways of the United States between 1996 and 1999. Most (121) of the isolates were P. multocida serotype 1, but serotypes 3, 3/4, 10, and 11 were also found. Many (82) of the isolates were further characterized by DNA fingerprinting procedures and tested in Pekin ducks for virulence. Almost all the serotype 1 isolates we tested caused mortality in Pekin ducks. Serotype 1 isolates varied in virulence, but the most consistent pattern was higher mortality in male ducks than in females. We found no evidence that isolates found in sediment vs. water, between Pacific and Central flyways, or during El Niño years had consistently different virulence. We also found a number of non-serotype 1 isolates that were avirulent in Pekin ducks. Isolates had DNA fingerprint profiles similar to those found in birds that died during avian cholera outbreaks.

Animals↗
PubMed1991

[Serum sensitivity of Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolated from sputum as a virulence factor in the lower respiratory tract].

To elucidate the clinical significance of serum-sensitivity of respiratory pathogenic Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) strains, we examined serum-sensitivity of P. aeruginosa isolated from 16 patients with lower respiratory tract infections and clinical backgrounds of these patients. We also evaluated the virulence of four serum-resistant and four serum-sensitive P. aeruginosa strains in murine pneumonia model induced by intratracheal challenge, and the silver-stained profiles of purified lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from these strains. Serum-sensitive strains were isolated only from patients with chronic bronchitis, bronchiectasis, and diffuse panbronchiolitis colonized with P. aeruginosa, and rarely caused pneumonias, while serum-resistant strains caused pneumonias in some cases. Intratracheal challenge of mice with 5 x 10(7) cfu per mouse of a serum resistant strain caused fatal hemorrhagic pneumonia with bacteremia. In contrast, the same dose of a serum-sensitive strain provided non-fatal pneumonia without bacteremia. LD50 of serum-sensitive strains in a murine model of P. aeruginosa pneumonia were at least 2-10 times higher than those of serum-resistant strain. The LPS profiles of two serum-resistant strains and one serum-sensitive strain showed ladder-like patterns. The similar analysis demonstrated that one serum-sensitive strain was lack of ladder-like patterns. These data support that serum-sensitive P. aeruginosa strains are less virulent than serum-resistant P. aeruginosa strains in the lower respiratory tract, and serum sensitivity of P. aeruginosa strains is determined by the structure of the O-side chain of LPS; either lack of the O-side chain or the presence of sparse O-side chain.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

Restriction fragment length polymorphism and virulence pattern of the veterinary pathogen Escherichia coli O139:K82:H1.

Escherichia coli O139:K82:H1 strains originating from outbreaks and single cases of oedema disease in pigs were characterized by their genomic restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP), their virulence pattern, and by the occurrence as well as the genomic distribution of the determinants for hemolysin (hly) and verotoxins (shiga-like toxins; sltI, sltII). Whereas the RFLPs revealed considerable variation among the E. coli O139:K82:H1 isolates depending the origin and epidemic source of the strains, the virulence gene slt II was found to be present in nearly all strains in a particular chromosomal region. Similar to RFLPs, the plasmid profiles are useful for epidemiological analysis.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Tackling both sides of the host-pathogen equation with Caenorhabditis elegans.

If one is interested in dissecting the complex interactions that exist between host and pathogen, the nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans is perhaps not the first model host that comes to mind. In this review I will introduce 'the worm' and try to show how it is, in fact, well suited to the identification of universal virulence factors and holds great promise for the study of conserved mechanisms of innate immunity.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Characterization of Shigella strains in Iran by plasmid profile analysis and PCR amplification of ipa genes.

To characterize Shigella clinical strains, we studied 82 Shigella strains recovered from 719 stool samples of patients with bloody diarrhea in Shiraz, Iran, over the period from April to October 2003. Serological assay classified the Shigella isolates as follows: 61 (74.39%) Shigella sonnei isolates, 16 (19.51%) Shigella flexneri isolates, 3 (3.65%) Shigella boydii isolates, and 2 (2.43%) Shigella dysenteriae isolates. In an antibiogram test, all Shigella strains were susceptible to ceftazidime, ciprofloxacin, and ceftriaxone. They showed high degrees of sensitivity to nalidixic acid, gentamicin, cephalothin, and amikacin. Approximately 90.24% of the Shigella isolates were resistant to co-trimoxazole. The plasmid profile patterns of all strains were determined by a modified alkaline lysis method. The average number of plasmid bands for each strain was 9.5. By plasmid profile analysis we identified 56 genotypes among all isolates and 42, 14, 3, and 2 genotypes among the S. sonnei, S. flexneri, S. boydii, and S. dysenteriae strains, respectively. PCR assays showed that all isolates were positive for two virulence genes, ipaBCD and ipaH. In conclusion, these data mandate local monitoring of drug resistance and its consideration in the empirical therapy of Shigella infections. These results also demonstrate that plasmid profile analysis is more reliable than antibiotic susceptibility pattern analysis for the identification of Shigella epidemic strains isolated in Iran.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Microarray analysis of Haemophilus parasuis gene expression under in vitro growth conditions mimicking the in vivo environment.

Haemophilus parasuis is the causative agent of polyserositis in pigs, a mostly fatal disease on the rise especially in early-weaned pigs and in pig herds with a high-health status. The mechanisms by which H. parasuis propagates through the body and colonizes the serous membranes are unknown. We have used an H. parasuis microarray to identify virulence genes involved in host adaptation. H. parasuis gene expression was analysed under in vitro growth conditions mimicking the environmental conditions encountered during an infection. These included iron-limitation, acidic and temperature stress and growth under microaerobic conditions. A kinetic impression of the gene regulation was obtained by analysing the transcription 10, 30 and 60 min after induction of the altered growth conditions. A total of 75 regulated H. parasuis genes were identified, most of which coded for transporters of iron and sugar metabolites, metabolic enzymes, DNA metabolism and hypothetical proteins with unknown functions. Furthermore, H. parasuis genes were identified that have homology to known virulence factors in other pathogenic bacteria. Homologues of some of the identified H. parasuis genes are known to be expressed during natural and experimental infections in pathogens of the Pasteurellaceae family.

Bacterial Proteins↗
PubMed2000

Vibrio vulnificus has the transmembrane transcription activator ToxRS stimulating the expression of the hemolysin gene vvhA.

In an attempt to dissect the virulence regulatory mechanism in Vibrio vulnificus, we tried to identify the V. cholerae transmembrane virulence regulator toxRS (toxRS(Vc)) homologs in V. vulnificus. By comparing the sequences of toxRS of V. cholerae and V. parahaemolyticus (toxRS(Vp)), we designed a degenerate primer set targeting well-conserved sequences. Using the PCR product as an authentic probe for Southern blot hybridization, a 1.6-kb BglII-HindIII fragment and a 1.2-kb HindIII fragment containing two complete open reading frames and one partial open reading frame attributable to toxR(Vv), toxS(Vv), and htpG(Vv) were cloned. ToxR(Vv) shared 55.0 and 63.0% sequence homology with ToxR(Vc) and ToxR(Vp), respectively. ToxS(Vv) was 71.5 and 65.7% homologous to ToxS(Vc) and ToxS(Vp), respectively. The amino acid sequences of ToxRS(Vv) showed transmembrane and activity domains similar to those observed in ToxRS(Vc) and ToxRS(Vp). Western blot analysis proved the expression of ToxR(Vv) in V. vulnificus. ToxRS(Vv) enhanced, in an Escherichia coli background, the expression of the V. vulnificus hemolysin gene (vvhA) fivefold. ToxRS(Vv) also activated the ToxR(Vc)-regulated ctx promoter incorporated into an E. coli chromosome. A toxR(Vv) null mutation decreased hemolysin production. The defect in hemolysin production could be complemented by a plasmid harboring the wild-type gene. The toxR(Vv) mutation also showed a reversed outer membrane protein expression profile in comparison to the isogenic wild-type strain. These results demonstrate that ToxR(Vv) may regulate the virulence expression of V. vulnificus.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed1994

Characteristics of virulence signs of enteroinvasive Escherichia coli (EIEC) isolated in CSFR and Bulgaria in 1988-1990.

During 1988-1990 a total of 345 virulent and avirulent strains of enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC) were isolated from human faeces in microbiological laboratories in Prague and Sofia. This group of strains belonged to a total of 11 serotypes. The most frequently encountered serotypes in both laboratories were: 0124, 0164 and 028ac. From patients 205 strains were obtained and from healthy subjects 140 strains of EIEC. In all strains the following signs of virulence were investigated: biochemical properties, serotypes, Serény's test, test on HeLa cells, sensitivity to colicine JS and the plasmid profile. The presence of high molecular plasmid 140 MDa correlated closely with positive results of the above mentioned tests. Plasmid 140 MDa was more frequently present in E. coli strains isolated from faeces of patients (in 76.09%) than in strains from healthy subjects (in 23%). The strains circulating in the healthy population were in the majority avirulent.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Prevalence, serotype distribution, antibiotic susceptibility and genetic profiles of mesophilic Aeromonas species isolated from hospitalized diarrhoeal cases in Kolkata, India.

A comprehensive study was performed to examine incidence, species distribution, drugs sensitivity, virulence genes and molecular fingerprints of Aeromonas species isolated from patients with acute diarrhoea over a period of 2 years in Kolkata, India. Following the Aerokey II scheme, more than 95 % of strains were identified to species level. Seven different species were encountered in this study, with Aeromonas caviae being dominant, followed by Aeromonas hydrophila and Aeromonas veronii biovar sobria. Thirty different serotypes were encountered, with O16, O83 and O85 being dominant, but no serotype was associated specifically with a single species. The majority of Aeromonas strains exhibited multidrug resistance. The alt and act genes, which encode heat-labile cytotonic and cytotoxic enterotoxins, were respectively found in 71.9 and 20.1 % of strains examined. Only 2.4 % of strains carried the heat-stable cytotonic enterotoxin (ast) gene. The hlyA gene was found in 28 % of Aeromonas strains. With few exceptions, genomic diversity of Aeromonas strains belonging to the same serotype was observed by random amplification of polymorphic DNA PCR and ribotyping. Different species of Aeromonas and different clones of Aeromonas species seem to be associated with hospitalized cases of diarrhoea in Kolkata, India.

Aeromonas↗
PubMed2006

Hfq-dependent alterations of the transcriptome profile and effects on quorum sensing in Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

The Pseudomonas aeruginosa quorum-sensing (QS) systems, Las and Rhl, control the production of several virulence factors and other proteins, which are important to sustain adverse conditions. A comparative transcriptome analysis of a rpoS (-) and a rpoS(-)hfq( -) strain indicated that the Sm-like RNA-binding protein Hfq affects approximately 5% of the P. aeruginosa O1 transcripts. Among these transcripts 72 were identified to be QS regulated. Expression studies revealed that Hfq does not control the master regulators of the Las system, LasR and LasI. Upon entry into stationary phase, Hfq exerted a moderate stimulatory effect on translation of the rhlR gene and on the qscR gene, encoding a LasR/RhlR homologue. However, Hfq considerably stimulated translation of the rhlI gene, encoding the synthetase of the autoinducer N-Butyryl-homoserine lactone (C4-HSL). Correspondingly, the C4-HSL levels were reduced in a hfq(-) strain. To elucidate the stimulatory effect of Hfq on rhlI expression we asked whether Hfq affects the stability of the regulatory RNAs RsmY and RsmZ, which have been implicated in sequestration of the translational repressor RsmA, which in turn is known to negatively regulate RhlI synthesis. We demonstrate that Hfq binds to and stabilizes the regulatory RNA RsmY, which is further shown to bind to the regulatory protein RsmA. A model for the Hfq regulatory network is presented, wherein an alleviation of the negative effect of RsmA accounts for the observed stimulation of rhlI expression by Hfq. The model is corroborated by the observation that a rsmY(-) mutant mimics the hfq(-) phenotype with regard to rhlI expression.

Bacterial Proteins↗
PubMed2006

Comparative genomics profiling of clinical isolates of Aeromonas salmonicida using DNA microarrays.

BACKGROUND: Aeromonas salmonicida has been isolated from numerous fish species and shows wide variation in virulence and pathogenicity. As part of a larger research program to identify virulence genes and candidates for vaccine development, a DNA microarray was constructed using a subset of 2024 genes from the draft genome sequence of A. salmonicida subsp. salmonicida strain A449. The microarray included genes encoding known virulence-associated factors in A. salmonicida and homologs of virulence genes of other pathogens. We used microarray-based comparative genomic hybridizations (M-CGH) to compare selected A. salmonicida sub-species and other Aeromonas species from different hosts and geographic locations. RESULTS: Results showed variable carriage of virulence-associated genes and generally increased variation in gene content across sub-species and species boundaries. The greatest variation was observed among genes associated with plasmids and transposons. There was little correlation between geographic region and degree of variation for all isolates tested. CONCLUSION: We have used the M-CGH technique to identify subsets of conserved genes from amongst this set of A. salmonicida virulence genes for further investigation as potential vaccine candidates. Unlike other bacterial characterization methods that use a small number of gene or DNA-based functions, M-CGH examines thousands of genes and/or whole genomes and thus is a more comprehensive analytical tool for veterinary or even human health research.

Aeromonas salmonicida↗