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PubMedDate not supplied

Differential genetic etiology of reading disability as a function of IQ.

To test the hypothesis that the genetic etiology of reading disability differs as a function of IQ, composite reading performance data from 223 pairs of identical twins and 169 pairs of same-gender fraternal twins in which at least one member of each pair was classified with reading disability were subjected to multiple regression analysis (DeFries & Fulker, 1985, 1988). In the total sample, heritability of the group deficit in reading performance (h(g)2) was .58 (+/- .08). However, when the basic regression model was fitted separately to data from twin pairs with average Wechsler (1974, 1981) full scale IQ scores below 100 or 100 and above, resulting estimates of h(g)2 were .43 and .72, respectively, a significant difference (p < or = .03, one-tailed). The results of fitting extended regression models to reading performance and continuous IQ data provide evidence that the genetic etiology of reading disability differs as a linear function of IQ (p < or = .007, one-tailed). These results suggest that IQ is relevant for the diagnosis of reading disability and that environmental influences may be more salient as a cause of reading difficulties in children with lower IQ scores.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Gender bias in IQ-discrepancy and post-discrepancy definitions of reading disability.

The present study investigated the hypothesis that the higher prevalence of reading disability (RD) often observed among boys is partly an artifact of gender bias in the prediction of reading from IQ. The relevant regression statistics derived from a sample of more than 900 children revealed a statistically significant intercept bias. Predicted reading scores for boys were systematically overestimated, thereby inflating IQ-reading discrepancies; the converse was found for girls. When defined separately for girls and boys, severe underachievement in reading was found to be equally prevalent in both genders and, furthermore, was associated with qualitatively and quantitatively similar patterns of deficits. Because the bias arose from general differences between boys and girls in reading score distributions (a lower mean and greater variance for boys) rather than from differences in IQ scores, gender bias poses a potential threat not only to traditional IQ-discrepancy definitions but also to post-discrepancy definitions that are based solely on reading score cutoffs. Future classification criteria for RD need to take heed of the possibility that when the distributions of reading scores for boys and girls are not identical, performance cutoffs designating low achievement that are based on data pooled from both genders are likely to result in the overidentification of boys with RD and the underidentification of girls with RD.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Layers of reading intervention in kindergarten through third grade: changes in teaching and student outcomes.

In this study, students and their teachers participated in a layered approach to reading intervention in kindergarten through third grade that included professional development for teachers in scientifically based reading instruction, ongoing measurement of reading progress, and additional small-group or individual instruction for students whose progress was insufficient to maintain grade-level reading achievement. Reading outcomes were compared with historical control groups of students in the same schools. The findings revealed overall improvements in reading, improved reading for students who began the study in high-risk categories, and decreases in the incidence of reading disability at the end of third grade. Implications for scaling up are discussed.

Achievement↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Comparisons of cutoff and regression-based definitions of reading disabilities.

This study addressed the issue of specificity in reading disability by comparing two approaches to defining and selecting children with reading disabilities. One approach defined reading disability according to cutoff scores representing appropriate levels of intelligence and reading deficiency, whereas the other approach adjusted these scores for their intercorrelation through regression procedures. Results revealed clear differences in which children were identified as reading disabled according to the two definitions. However, differences in neuropsychological performance between children whose reading scores were discrepant or not discrepant with IQ were small and nonspecific for both definitions. The results of this study show that children identified as reading disabled vary according to the definition employed; at this point, there is little evidence suggesting any specificity of reading disability according to definition.

Achievement↗
PubMed1990

Reading disabilities and the effects of colored filters.

The efficacy of a controversial treatment, using colored filters to remediate reading disabilities, was measured empirically, with colored overlays placed over reading material on white paper. Irlen's (1983) method is to prescribe specific tinted filters as lenses that she claims filter specific light frequencies and remove a range of perceptual disorders that adversely affect reading and related learning performance. Irlen calls this condition "scotopic sensitivity" and claims it is a significant factor in a high percentage of people with learning disabilities. Ninety-two children with significant reading disabilities were classified as either scotopic or nonscotopic using the Irlen Differential Perceptual Schedule, and were randomly assigned to one of six treatment groups using colored or clear overlays. Reading performance (rate, accuracy, and comprehension) as measured by the Neale Analysis of Reading Ability (Neale, 1987) and the Formal Reading Inventory (Wiederholt, 1986) improved significantly when the scotopic children read with the preferred colored overlay filter compared to clear or different-colored overlay filters. Nonscotopic children showed no change.

Child↗
PubMed2005

Second reading of screening mammograms increases cancer detection and recall rates. Results in the Florence screening programme.

OBJECTIVE: To assess double reading effectiveness in mammography screening. DESIGN: Retrospective study of 177,631 consecutive mammograms double read during 1998-2003. SETTING: The Florence screening programme, involving 11 trained radiologists. Abnormalities reported by at least one reader prompted assessment. RESULTS: The referral rate was 2.89% for the first reader, 3.15% for the second reader, and 3.59% for either reader. Of 713 total cancers detected, 43 were suspected only by the second reader (6.4% relative, 0.024% increase in absolute detection rate) and had a lower stage compared to the first reader (pTis-pT1b = 65.7 versus 52.0%): 41 were reviewed and classified (error type) as "minimal sign" in six, and "screening error" in 35 cases, or as BI-RADS 3 in one, 4a in 20, 4b in 13, and 4c in three cases. The second reading cost was 2.70 per woman examined, or 11,168 per additional cancer detected (versus 11,585 at a single reading). DISCUSSION: Second reading is effective in detecting a limited number of additional cancer cases. Tumour stage (one-third over 1 cm in diameter) and review findings (high rate of "screening errors" and BI-RADS R4b-c categories) suggest that second reading detects small "difficult cases" as well as larger cancers missed due to fatigue or loss of attention. Second reading reduces screening specificity to a minor extent, and since cancer detection at second reading seems cost-effective the procedure is recommendable in routine practice.

Aged↗
PubMed2006

Evidence of reference standard related bias in studies of plain radiograph reading performance: a meta-regression.

The aim is to determine the effect of reference standard related bias on estimates of plain radiograph reading performance using studies conducted in clinical practice. Data were extracted on study eligibility, clinical and reference standard characteristics and reading performance. The choice of reference standards and the prevalence of bias are presented descriptively. Associations between bias and reading performance are estimated using a regression model that produces relative diagnostic odds ratios (RDOR) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Three of the 20 eligible studies addressed all five reference standard related biases; 15 studies addressed three or more. When the reference standard report is influenced by knowledge of an observer's opinion this is associated with a significant overestimation in reading performance (RDOR, 3.7; 95% CI, 1.6 to 8.3; p = 0.01). There is limited evidence that reading performance is inflated when the observer is aware of the reference standard report before commenting on the radiograph (RDOR, 1.7; 95% CI, 0.6 to 5.1) and deflated when a less valid reference standard is used (RDOR, 0.5; 95% CI, 0.1 to 2.5). There is no evidence that reading performance is affected by application of the reference standard depending on an observer's opinion and using different reference standards in the same study. In conclusion we found variation in the choice and application of reference standards in studies of plain radiograph reading performance, but only when reference standards report in the knowledge of an observer's opinion does this contribute to a significant overestimation in reading performance.

Awareness↗
PubMed1980

Peer tutoring with or without home-based reinforcement, for reading remediation.

An operant-based corrective reading program was established to study effectiveness of peer tutoring in the school, for reading deficient children. Sixty-nine second to fourth grade students were matched on measures of initial reading ability and level of reading retardation, and randomly assigned to three groups: Peer Tutoring Only, Peer Tutoring with Home Based Reinforcement, and Control. SRA materials were used in training for the experimental groups, supplemented with additional reading materials. The program continued for 15 weeks, in seven public schools. Changes in oral reading accuracy and comprehansion were assessed. Both reading and comprehension were significantly increased by peer tutoring, relative to the control group. The addition of home-based reinforcement doubled this increase. The measured gain in oral reading, based upon standardized testing, was 0.19 years for the controls and 1.27 years for peer tutoring with home-based reinforcement. Internal measures of gain showed similar results, and comprehension gains were also comparable. A high rate of compliance with the tutoring program was maintained by the tutors. High ratings of satisfaction were obtained for the program, from all groups of participants. The feasibility of the program for application in the school system is discussed.

Achievement↗
PubMed2000

Auditory temporal processing and lexical/nonlexical reading in developmental dyslexics.

Relationships between lexical/nonlexical reading and auditory temporal processing were examined. Poor nonlexical readers (poor nonword readers, phonologic dyslexics) had difficulty across tone tasks irrespective of speed of presentation or mode of recall. Poor lexical readers (poor irregular word readers, surface dyslexics) had difficulty recalling tones in a sequence only when they were presented rapidly. Covariate analysis supported these findings, revealing that nonlexical (nonword) reading performance is associated with general auditory performance, but lexical (irregular word) reading is particularly associated with auditory sequencing. These findings suggest that phonologic and surface dyslexics perform differently on nonspeech auditory tasks. Because the two different types of poor readers did not differ significantly on tests of memory and learning but did differ on auditory tasks, we suggest that their performance on the auditory tasks may reflect auditory processing abnormalities as opposed to more general learning or memory difficulties. In addition to these observed qualitative differences between groups on the tone tasks, collapsing groups (all readers) revealed significant correlations between nonword reading and the Same-Different tone tasks in particular, whereas irregular word reading was not associated with any tone tasks; there also appears to be a quantitative relationship between nonlexical reading and Same-Different tone task performance as better or worse nonword reading predicts better or worse performance on the Same-Different tone tasks. In particular, it is conceivable that an auditory temporal processing deficit might contribute to poor nonword reading.

Auditory Perceptual Disorders↗
PubMed2005

Low yield for extended reading of patch tests with topical corticosteroids.

BACKGROUND: On the basis of reports that up to 30% of patch test reactions are missed if an extended reading is not performed, we required that patients who were being patch tested with the corticosteroid series return for a reading at least 1 week after placement of the allergens. OBJECTIVE: To report our institutional experience with extended readings (day 7 or beyond) of patch test reactions to the corticosteroid series. METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed patch test reactions to corticosteroids since extended readings were implemented (April 2001 to June 2004). RESULTS: A total of 135 patients were patch tested with 1,656 corticosteroid allergens. On day 5, five patients had five positive patch test reactions; by the time of the extended reading, no new reactions had developed in these patients. Of the patients with no reactions on day 5, two had a positive result at the extended reading: each had a relevant reaction to budesonide 0.1%, one on day 7 and the other on day 9. CONCLUSIONS: Only 2 reactions (to 1,656 corticosteroids) became apparent at the extended reading. Extended readings were of limited value in our experience.

Administration, Topical↗
PubMed1988

Accuracy of blood glucose concentrations determined by four visually read reagent strips.

Two new reagent strips have recently been introduced for blood glucose measurement by direct visual reading. Results obtained with these strips (Glucostix and Hypogard GA) were compared with those obtained using other commonly employed strips (BM-Test-Glycemie 1-44 and Visidex II) and a standard laboratory method. Blood glucose estimations were performed on samples of venous blood drawn from 125 patients attending the diabetic clinic using each of the four strips and the laboratory method. Results obtained with the strips correlated with the laboratory values as follows: BM-Test-Glycemie 1-44, r=0.93; Glucostix r=0.93; Hypogard GA r=0.87 and Visidex II r=0.92. The lower correlation with Hypogard GA reflected consistent underestimation of the laboratory value (slope of regression line = 0.63). Readings in error by 20% or more were: BM-Test-Glycemie 1-44, 14%; Glucostix, 15%; Hypogard GA, 31%, and Visidex II, 14%. With Hypogard GA strips, 57% of readings above 16 mmol/l were inaccurate. We conclude that Hypogard GA strips cannot be recommended for direct visual reading. Acceptable results may, however, be obtained using the other three strips.Reagent strips allow reasonably accurate determinations of blood glucose concentrations when used with a reflectance meter.(1, 2) Nevertheless many diabetic patients prefer to read the reagent strips visually. This method avoids the problems associated with meter calibration, is cheaper and also is more portable. Direct visual readings with BM-Test-Glycemie 1-44 (Boehringer Corporation) and Visidex II (Ames) have been shown to be acceptable in the hands of medical and technical personnel.(3, 4) Recently two new reagent strips have been marketed, Hypogard GA (Hypogard UK Ltd) and Glucostix (Ames), and it is claimed that they are also suitable for direct visual reading. To test the validity of these claims, we have compared results obtained using the newer strips with readings from BM-Test-Glycemie 1-44 and Visidex II and with a standard laboratory method.

Blood Glucose↗
PubMed1983

Unconventional reading of the glycine codons.

We have used a protein-synthesizing in vitro system programmed with the phage message MS2-RNA to investigate the ability of glycyl-tRNAs with different anticodons to read the glycine codons. Under conditions of no competition, when the glycyl-tRNA analyzed was the only source of glycine for protein synthesis, each of the isoacceptors tested, tRNA1Gly (anticodon CCC), tRNA2Gly (anticodon N/UCC), tRNA3Gly (anticodon GCC) from Escherichia coli, and tRNAGly (anticodon UCC) from Mycoplasma mycoides, could read all of the glycine codons in the MS2 coat protein cistron (GGU, GGC, GGA, and GGG). However, tRNA1Gly seemed to have difficulties reading through the whole cistron. Experiments in which two glycyl-tRNAs competed for the same codon showed that the mycoplasma tRNAGly (anticodon UCC) was almost as efficient in the unorthodox reading of the codons GGU and GGC as it was in conventional reading. It would seem to be the only tRNAGly present in Mycoplasma mycoides and our results are consistent with this finding since the mycoplasma tRNAGly appears to have been designed to read all four glycine codons with approximately equal efficiency. The competition experiments furthermore showed that E. coli tRNA1Gly (anticodon CCC) reads the codon GGA more efficiently than it reads GGU and GGC suggesting that the mispair C . A between the wobble position of the anticodon and the third codon position might have appreciable stability.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed1998

Eye movement efficiency in normal and reading disabled elementary school children: effects of varying luminance and wavelength.

BACKGROUND: This investigation examines the question of whether decreasing wavelength of light and/or reducing luminance benefits oculomotor efficiency in normal and reading disabled (RD) children. METHODS: Two groups of children were identified as normal or disabled readers using standardized reading tests. After suitable practice, eye movements were objectively measured with the Visagraph II as each of the subjects silently read a series of three different selections at their independent reading level with clear (control), gray, and blue filters. Four variables were measured for each subject. Data were analyzed using a repeated measure ANOVA and post hoc tests. RESULTS: The standardized reading tests significantly differentiated average from poor readers using grade scores and percentiles. Initially, with clear filters, eye movement scores of normal readers were superior to disabled readers for fixations regressions, and rate of reading. Among the RDs--but not the normals--the three variables improved with the blue filter when compared with the clear filter, number of fixations and regressions were significantly lower, and rate was significantly higher. Gray filters yielded no significant changes. Improvement with the blue filters normalized the three variables in that there were no significant differences between normal and disabled readers. CONCLUSION: This investigation confirms a link between wavelength of light and eye movement efficiency in reading. Blue filters resulted in a significant improvement in the number of fixations and regressions and rate of reading in RD children. The outcome broadens the concept of transient system deficit established in previous research to include the effect on oculomotor efficiency. The educational implications of this study are of special interest to optometrists.

Child↗
PubMed1993

Do tinted lenses improve the reading performance of dyslexic children? A cohort study.

The use of tinted lenses as a method to improve reading skills in children with dyslexia has been a controversial issue in recent years. The purpose of the present study was to determine if tinted lenses cause a measurable improvement in the reading performance of dyslexic children. Twenty-four children aged 8 to 12 years participated in the study. Dyslexia was diagnosed in all children by psychological evaluation, and these children underwent an ophthalmic evaluation for inclusion into the study. Participants were graded for speed and accuracy as they read through spectacle frames that contained red-, blue-, yellow-, and green-tinted lenses, a neutral-density lens, and empty frames. All lenses for each subject were of the same density level, with subjects alternately distributed to one of two densities tested (0.12 or 0.30 log units). Each child was asked to select the lens condition that subjectively improved reading ability at the conclusion of testing. One-way analysis of variance of reading performance showed neither improvement nor deterioration attributable to lens color or density when applied to error rates (F = 1.73, P = .14 for a density of 0.12; F = 0.28, P = .92 for a density of 0.30) or to reading rates (F = 0.98, P = .44 for a density of 0.12; F = 0.81, P = .55 for a density of 0.30). In addition, the lens condition that was subjectively preferred by each child did not correlate with actual reading performance (chi 2 = 3.83, not significant; 11.07 needed for significance at P = .05).

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed1982

Prediction of achievement in reading, self-esteem, auding, and verbal language by adult illiterates in a psychoeducational tutorial program.

Examined the effectiveness of specific psychoeducational tutoring methods on achievement in reading, self-esteem, auding, and verbal language, Ss (N = 132) were youths and adults reading below fifth level who volunteered to participate in an adult tutorial project. After the assessment of entry level achievement, Ss received psychoeducational tutoring. Comparison of pre- with posttest scores scores indicated that Ss made significant improvement in reading, self-esteem, auding, and verbal language. Pretest scores were related most strongly to posttest scores. Initial verbal language scores were related significantly to posttest reading and auding scores. The study also tested the adequacy of a developmental reading model for adult illiterates. Auding and verbal language scores exceeded reading scores, as theorized. Further research is needed to determine whether gains in achievement continue and whether low intellectual levels or specific language disabilities are contributing to the low levels of reading, auding, and verbal language.

Achievement↗
PubMed1997

Inversion errors in Arabic number reading: is there a nonsemantic route?

This article reports on a mildly aphasic patient with major disorders in reading, writing, and number processing. His predominant error type in reading aloud Arabic numbers and in matching heard numerals with Arabic numbers was the violation of the inversion rule of the German Arabic number reading system. According to this rule most of the two-digit numbers or numbers in the final and prefinal position of longer digit strings have to be read beginning with the final digit (e.g. 26-->sechsundzwanzig (literally translated: six-and-twenty)). It is argued that AT's inversion errors (e.g., 26-->zweiundsechzig (literally translated: two-and-sixty)) are not consistent with the predictions of single route models of Arabic number reading but are in agreement with proposals of a visually based asemantic reading routine in addition to a semantically mediated reading routine.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1994

Reading with the right hemisphere: evidence from transcranial magnetic stimulation.

Although many patients with dominant hemisphere damage retain some reading ability, the anatomic substrate of the preserved reading remains controversial. We tested the hypothesis that the right hemisphere mediates the reading of some patients with acquired dyslexia by using Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) to assess the effect of transient cortical stimulation on reading. A patient with (partially recovered) pure alexia was asked to read aloud briefly presented words, half of which were shown in association with TMS of the right or left hemisphere. Consistent with the right hemisphere reading hypothesis, stimulation of the right but not the left hemisphere disrupted oral reading.

Cerebral Infarction↗
PubMed1998

Hemispheric priming in a reading task.

Some theories of reading and of reading disorders assume that the right hemisphere plays an important role in reading. However, despite the evidence supporting the competence of the right hemisphere in recognizing isolate words, there is little direct evidence to support the claim that the right hemisphere is involved in the continuous reading of connected text. This study used a stationary window technique to present text passages in a continuous reading task. At intervals during the reading of the text, a lexical decision was required to a target projected to the left or right side of the visual field. On some trials, the target was primed by a semantic associate which appeared in the passage immediately prior to the presentation of the target. It was found that these associative primes facilitated responses to LVF and RVF targets to an equal degree. It was also found, in agreement with previous investigations, that overall RTs to LVF targets were longer than RTs to RVF targets. It is suggested that these results indicate that the right hemisphere is actively involved in the comprehension of text in normal reading. However, the right hemisphere may not acquire text information directly, but may instead receive most of its information following initial analysis and decoding by the left.

Adolescent↗