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PubMed1984

Proprioception in idiopathic scoliosis.

Proprioception testing and gait analysis was performed on a group of 17 patients with idiopathic scoliosis. All curves had documented progression. The average curve was 26.8 degrees, all primary curves being right thoracic. The average age was 14.8 years. Twelve, healthy, age-matched controls underwent identical testing. Results showed that scoliotic subjects had asymmetry in their ability to reproduce angles between their two knees, as well as an absolute deficit in their ability to reproduce angles as compared with controls (P less than 0.01). The threshold of detection of change in angle at the knee was also quantitatively higher than controls (P less than 0.05), although asymmetry was not statistically significant. No significant differences were measured in gait parameters between scoliotics and controls. These joint position tests have been applied previously to young and elderly adults, athletes, and total joint patients. In no group has any asymmetry of response been demonstrated, both extremities showing virtually identical performance in each case. The tests administered measure sensory modalities, which are conducted through the posterior columns. Although the site of damage in the neural pathway cannot be specifically localized by these tests, results of this study support the presence of a neurologic deficit in idiopathic scoliosis.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Influence of professional dance training on peak torque and proprioception at the ankle.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the influence of professional dance training on the peak torque ratio of plantar flexion to dorsiflexion (PF/DF), angle replication ability, and balance in comparison to age-matched and gender-matched controls. The effects of injuries sustained before and during the study time period were also assessed. DESIGN: Prospective age-matched and gender-matched nonrandomized intervention study. SETTING: Premises of the Orthopedic University Hospital, Heidelberg, where measuring apparatus belonging to the hospital was used for the tests. PARTICIPANTS: One group of 42 dancers (31 female, 11 male) in professional training (State Academy) and 40 age-matched and gender-matched controls with no prior dance or specific sport training. MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS: Isokinetic tests for peak torque at 30 degrees /s and 120 degrees /s, a passive angle-replication test (Biodex system 3), and a test of 1-legged standing were each carried out on 2 measurement dates (M1, M2): at the beginning of a season of professional dance training (M1) and after 5 months of such training (M2). Symptoms and/or injuries sustained during this period were ascertained continuously by means of questionnaires and interviews. RESULTS: A significant increase in peak torque in PF was observed in both dancer groups and male controls between M1 and M2. A significant increase in PF/DF peak torque ratio at 30 degrees /s was observed in both male groups between M1 and M2. At M2, no significant differences in PF/DF peak torque ratio could be found between male dancers and controls, but at 30 degrees /s between the female groups. However, in both female groups, the PF/DF ratio was not found to increase significantly between M1 and M2. In the angle-replication and 1-legged standing test, no consistent improvement was observed between M1 and M2 in either dancers or controls. In the angle-replication test, there were no significant differences between dancers and controls at M2. In the 1-legged standing test, the dancers did significantly better than controls. A total of 7 ankle injuries were recorded, but no difference was found between injured and uninjured subjects in the proprioceptive tests either at M1, as the predicator, or at M2 as the residual. CONCLUSIONS: Dance training did not increase the peak torque ratio of PF/DF within 5 months, but a group difference was found between the women groups. Ballet training alone without concurrent additional coordinative training does not lead to improvements in ankle joint position sense or improved measures of balance within this period of observation.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Proprioception in extraocular muscles.

Human extraocular muscles are richly endowed with sensory receptors. The precise role of afferent signals derived from these proprioceptors in ocular motor control and spatial localization has been the subject of considerable debate for more than a century. Laboratory-based and clinical studies have increasingly suggested that proprioceptive signals from extraocular muscles influence visuomotor behavior.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Proprioceptive hair cells on the neck of the squid Lolliguncula brevis: a sense organ in cephalopods for the control of head-to-body position.

Decapod cephalopods, such as cuttlefishes and squids, have a distinct neck region that allows movements (roll, pitch and yaw) of the head relative to the body. This paper describes the structure, innervation and central pathways of proprioceptive hair cells on the neck of the squid Lolliguncula brevis that sense such movements and control head-to-body position. These hair cells exist on the dorsal side of the neck underneath the nuchal cartilage, close to the animal's midline on either side of the nuchal crest. On each side, the hair cells can be divided into an anterior and a posterior group of 25-35 and 70-80 cells, respectively. An individual hair cell carries up to 300 kinocilia of equal length (about 30 microns), arranged in up to seven rows. The hair cells of the left and right anterior group are morphologically polarized in the medial direction, whereas the hair cells of the left and right posterior group are polarized in the anterior direction. The hair cells are primary sensory cells. They are innervated by a branch of the postorbital nerve and project ipsilaterally into the ventral part of the ventral magnocellular lobe. Efferent synaptic contacts are present at the base of the hair cells. In behavioural tests the influence of the neck hair cells on head position control was investigated. During imposed body rolls, a unilateral deafferentation of the cells caused an asymmetric change of the compensatory head roll response and elicited a head roll offset to the operated side. Bilateral deafferentation of the cells elicited a downward head pitch offset. This offset was superimposed on the compensatory head pitch response during imposed body pitch. These morphological and behavioural findings show that the neck hair cells and the associated nuchal cartilage structures of Lolliguncula brevis form a neck receptor organ that, together with statocyst and visual inputs, controls the position of the animal's head and body.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Differential progression of proprioceptive and visual information processing deficits in Parkinson's disease.

Indirect evidence suggests that patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) have deficits not only in motor performance, but also in the processing of sensory information. We investigated the role of sensory information processing in PD patients with a broad range of disease severities and in a group of age-matched controls. Subjects were tested in two conditions: pointing to a remembered visual target in complete darkness (DARK) and in the presence of an illuminated frame with a light attached to the index finger (FRAME). Differences in pointing errors in these two conditions reflect the effect of visual feedback on pointing. PD patients showed significantly larger constant and variable errors than controls in the DARK and FRAME condition. The difference of the variable error in the FRAME and DARK condition decreased as a function of the severity of PD. This indicates that any deficits in the processing of proprioceptive information occur already at very mild symptoms of PD, and that deficits in the use of visual feedback develop progressively in later stages of the disease. These results provide a tool for early diagnosis of PD and shed new light on the functional role of the brain structures that are affected in PD.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Effect of gaze on postural responses to neck proprioceptive and vestibular stimulation in humans.

1. We studied the effect of gaze orientation on postural responses evoked by vibration of neck dorsal muscles or by galvanic stimulation of the vestibular system during quiet standing in healthy humans. Various gaze orientations were obtained by different combinations of horizontal head-on-feet (-90, -45, 0, 45, 90 deg) and eye-in-orbit (-30, 0, 30 deg) positions. The instantaneous centre of foot pressure was recorded with a force platform. 2. With a symmetrical position of the vibrator relative to the spine, neck muscle vibration elicited a body sway in the direction of the head naso-occipital axis when the eyes were aligned with it. The same result was obtained both during head rotations and when the head and trunk were rotated together. 3. For lateral eye deviations, the direction of the body sway was aligned with gaze orientation. The effect of gaze was present both with eyes open and eyes closed. After long-lasting (1 min) lateral fixation of the target the effect of gaze decreased significantly. 4. Postural responses to galvanic vestibular stimulation tended to occur orthogonal to the head naso-occipital axis (towards the anodal ear) but in eight of the 11 subjects the responses were also biased by the direction of gaze. 5. The prominent effect of gaze in reorienting automatic postural reactions indicates that both neck proprioceptive and vestibular stimuli are processed in the context of visual control of posture. The results point out the importance of a viewer-centred frame of reference for processing multisensory information.

Adult↗
PubMed1995

Electrotactile stimulator for artificial proprioception.

With the goal of investigating artificial proprioception elicited by electrical stimulation, we have developed a tactile phi phenomenon-based stimulator. This two-channel microprocessed pulse amplitude modulation system generates two different envelope waveforms (triangular and elliptical) and allows programming and visualizing of its main parameters: pulse with (0.1-10 ms), pulse frequency (0.1-10 kHz), modulation frequency (0.3-10 Hz), current intensity (up to 20 mA), and the amplitude modulation index (0-100%). In vivo experiments with 5 normal persons have shown that it is possible to elicit a moving fused phantom image with good resolution. A triangular envelope is good for straight line sensations while the elliptical one is more comfortable and has better resolution for all kinds of moving images.

Biofeedback, Psychology↗
PubMed1989

The effect of visual deprivation and proprioceptive change on postural sway in healthy adults.

In 39 healthy active people aged 17 to 79 who had not fallen, anteroposterior sway during quiet standing increased slightly with age; there was no increase with age in lateral sway. Sway increased on deprivation of visual information and altered proprioception due to foot pressure sensory change in all age groups, and especially when both forms of sensation were altered concurrently; but the increase of sway on pressure sensory change was no greater in the older than in the younger subjects.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1983

The acute effect of the GABA-agonist, THIP, on proprioceptive and flexor reflexes in spastic patients.

THIP (Lu 2-030) is pharmacologically a specific and potent GABA-receptor-agonist which in animal studies depresses monosynaptic and, to a smaller extent, polysynaptic spinal reflexes. 5 spastic patients were investigated by means of neurophysiological tests comparing the acute effect of a single oral dose of THIP (15-25 mg) to "the test situation without drug administration" with an interval of 2 days. The neurophysiological tests included quantitative studies of proprioceptive reflexes (T-reflex, vibratory inhibition of the T-reflex, resistance to passive movement of a spastic muscle and clonus) and of the flexor reflex (threshold and latency). The voluntary power was measured by a static technique. THIP clearly reduced the monosynaptic T-reflex and reinforced vibratory inhibition of the IA monosynaptic pathway. The flexor reflex threshold was slightly increased during THIP administration, but the changes were not significant. Flexor reflex latency, resistance to passive movement, clonus and voluntary power were unchanged.

Adult↗
PubMed1976

Disturbances in voluntary recruitment order of low and high frequency motor units on blockades of proprioceptive afferent activity.

The voluntary recruitment order of anterior tibial motor units was studied in electromyographic recordings using both low and high impedance electrodes. It was shown in previous papers, that the recruitment order in sustained voluntary contraction is normally stable and that motor units with low thresholds discharge at low, regular frequencies and that motor units with high thresholds discharge at higher and more irregular frequencies. In this paper the consequences for the discharge properties of reduced afferent inflow in sustained voluntary contraction were studied, using partial ischemic or lidocain blockades of the muscle nerve and local cooling of the muscle belly. 1. The recruitment order of certain low and certain high frequency units was reversed. 2. The muscle tension and sense of effort necessary for tonic firing were increased for certain low frequency units but decreased for certain high frequency units. 3. On severe reduction of the afferent inflow, the differences in discharge pattern between low and high frequency units were decreased. It is concluded that the recruitment of low frequency units before high frequency units in sustained voluntary contraction is partly due to proprioceptive afferent activity favouring low frequency units and disfavouring high frequency units. It is also concluded that the afferent inflow is involved in restricting certain units to low frequency discharge and others to high frequency discharge.

Action Potentials↗
PubMed2002

Modern concepts of brainstem anatomy: from extraocular motoneurons to proprioceptive pathways.

The extraocular muscles, unlike the skeletal muscles, contain non-twitch muscle fibers. Recent experiments have located the non-twitch motoneurons. They lie around the periphery of the oculomotor, trochlear and abducens nuclei, separate from the more usual twitch motoneurons that cluster within the boundaries of the classical motor nuclei. The premotor inputs to non-twitch neurons were traced by the injection of rabies virus into the distal tip of the lateral rectus muscle. Retrogradely labeled cells were found in areas associated with the neural integrator, vergence and smooth pursuit premotor areas, but not the saccadic premotor burst neurons or the direct vestibulo-ocular pathways. The rabies tracing emphasizes for the first time that the central mesencephalic reticular formation (cMRF) and the supraoculomotor area exert direct premotor control over the non-twitch motoneurons. Because the two sets of motoneurons do not receive the same afferents, they must have different functions; these are not yet clarified. These results are not compatible with the concept of a single final common pathway from motoneurons to eye muscles. Putative sensory receptors, palisade endings, are located at the tips of non-twitch muscle fibers reminiscent of an inverted muscle spindle, which would make the non-twitch motoneurons, gamma-motoneurons. We propose that twitch motoneurons are the major source of tension used for eye movements, whereas non-twitch motoneurons are more important for fine alignment of the eyes. Furthermore, the non-twitch motoneurons could be controlled through sensory feedback networks (including perhaps proprioceptive signals from the palisade endings) that are relayed through the superior colliculus and via cMRF to the non-twitch motoneurons. The clinical repercussions of these hypotheses are discussed.

Animals↗
PubMed1980

Interactions between extraocular proprioceptive and visual signals in the superior colliculus of the cat.

1. The responses of units in the superficial layers of the superior colliculus to stretch of extrinsic ocular muscles (e.o.m.) and to visual stimuli, delivered singly and paired at various inter-stimulus intervals, were studied in chloralose-anaesthetized cats. 2. Most units responded to visual stimuli and about half also gave phasic excitatory responses to stretch of e.o.m. 3. Signals from the e.o.m. of each eye reach both superior colliculi; only those in the colliculus ipsilateral to the e.o.m. stretched were studied in detail. 4. A variety of control experiments provided evidence that the signal leading to the responses to e.o.m. stretch was extraretinal. The strong probability is that the receptors responsible were in the extrinsic ocular muscles or their tendons. 5. Of fifty-six units, twenty-four (43%) showed definite interactions between the effects of visual stimuli delivered to the left eye and those due to stretch of e.o.m. of the right eye whose retina had been destroyed. 6. Interactions were found with both stationary and moving visual stimuli. They involved either enhancement or reduction (sometimes abolition) of the response to either e.o.m. or visual stimulation, particularly the latter. 7. Units with interactions showed one of three types of behaviour. (1) Excitatory responses to visual and e.o.m. stimuli given singly, and interactions when the two types of stimulus were paired at some time intervals. Suppression and abolition of visual responses by preceding e.o.m. stretch was common. (2) Units with little or no excitatory response to e.o.m. stretch applied alone, but with showed reduction of their visual responses by preceding e.o.m. stretch. (3) Units with minimal responses to either type of stimulus presented alone but which gave markedly enhanced responses when visual and e.o.m. stimuli were paired. 8. These interactions between proprioceptive and retinal signals are thought to allow retinal image movements which result from saccades to be distinguished from those due to movement of objects in the external world.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

Postural proprioceptive reflexes in standing human subjects: bandwidth of response and transmission characteristics.

1. This study investigated the reflex control of postural sway during human bipedal stance. The experiments were designed to: (i) find evidence for the operation of 'stretch reflex' pathways during quiet stance, (ii) determine the bandwidth of the reflex response, (iii) describe the reflex transmission characteristics in standing subjects, and (iv) assess the ability of subjects to make a task-dependent change in the reflex. 2. A continuous random perturbation that did not threaten stability was applied at waist level to nine standing subjects. The effects of the perturbation on ankle torque, ankle movement and soleus electromyographic activity (EMG) were identified by cross-correlation. The bandwidth of the reflex response and the transmission characteristics of reflexes that respond to ankle movement were identified by spectral analysis. Changes in these reflex responses were investigated when subjects attempted to stand as still as possible, had their eyes closed, or balanced a load equivalent to their own body in a situation in which neither visual nor vestibular reflexes would be activated. 3. When standing, a reflex response coherent with the perturbation was seen in soleus EMG at frequencies up to 5 Hz, with maximal coherence at 1.0-2.0 Hz. Reflex gain increased with frequency, and there was a frequency-dependent phase advance of soleus EMG on ankle movement reaching 135 deg at 3 Hz. When attempting to minimize sway, subjects produced a more coherent reflex response and significantly increased reflex gain. 4. The response and transmission characteristics of the lower limb proprioceptive reflex in freely standing subjects were similar to those in subjects balancing a load at the ankle, a situation in which vestibular and visual inputs could not contribute. 5. It is concluded that reflex feedback related to ankle movement contributes significantly to maintaining stance, and that much of the reflex response originates from lower limb mechanoreceptors stimulated by ankle rotation. Although reflex gain may be relatively low during quiet stance it can be increased when necessary to maintain stability.

Adult↗
PubMed1994

Intercostal muscle compensation for parasternal paralysis in the dog: central and proprioceptive mechanisms.

1. Denervation of the parasternal intercostal muscles in the dog is known to cause a substantial reduction in the inspiratory cranial displacement of the ribs and a compensatory increase in the activation of the other inspiratory intercostal muscles, namely the external intercostals and the levator costae. The present studies were designed to assess the mechanism(s) of that compensation. 2. Denervating the parasternal intercostals bilaterally caused a reduction in tidal volume and an increase in arterial PCO2 (Pa, CO2). Severing the parasternal intercostals selectively produced similar changes. The concomitant increases in external intercostal and levator costae activity, however, were much greater than predicted on the basis of the increased Pa, CO2. 3. Denervating the parasternal intercostals on one side of the chest produced large increases in ipsilateral, but not contralateral external intercostal activity. 4. Manipulating the ribs after the parasternal intercostals were inactivated so as to reproduce the normal inspiratory cranial displacement of the ribs elicited immediate, clear-cut reductions in external intercostal and levator costae activities. 5. The increases in external intercostal and levator costae activities that occur after inactivation of the parasternal intercostals thus result partly from the increased hypercapnic drive but mostly from proprioceptive reflexes, presumably muscle spindle reflexes.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Manually controlled human balancing using visual, vestibular and proprioceptive senses involves a common, low frequency neural process.

Ten subjects balanced their own body or a mechanically equivalent unstable inverted pendulum by hand, through a compliant spring linkage. Their balancing process was always characterized by repeated small reciprocating hand movements. These bias adjustments were an observable sign of intermittent alterations in neural output. On average, the adjustments occurred at intervals of approximately 400 ms. To generate appropriate stabilizing bias adjustments, sensory information about body or load movement is needed. Subjects used visual, vestibular or proprioceptive sensation alone and in combination to perform the tasks. We first ask, is the time between adjustments (bias duration) sensory specific? Vision is associated with slow responses. Other senses involved with balance are known to be faster. Our second question is; does bias duration depend on sensory abundance? An appropriate bias adjustment cannot occur until unplanned motion is unambiguously perceived (a sensory threshold). The addition of more sensory data should therefore expedite action, decreasing the mean bias adjustment duration. Statistical analysis showed that (1) the mean bias adjustment duration was remarkably independent of the sensory modality and (2) the addition of one or two sensory modalities made a small, but significant, decrease in the mean bias adjustment duration. Thus, a threshold effect can alter only a very minor part of the bias duration. The bias adjustment duration in manual balancing must reflect something more than visual sensation and perceptual thresholds; our suggestion is that it is a common central motor planning process. We predict that similar processes may be identified in the control of standing.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Analysis of the role of proprioceptive information during arm movements using a model of the human arm.

Using a model for the neuromuscular control of human arm movements, the possible roles of different proprioceptive signals are analyzed. The control model is represented by a neural network and includes both feedback and feedforward control modes. After a learning process, the controller regulates a wide range of arm movements. Evaluation of the roles of different afferent signals shows that sensed muscle forces are important to achieve accurate control of fast movements. For a moderately high look delay (50 ms), velocity feedback is not essential, but for small look delays (0 to 25 ms) an increased performance is attained by feedback of velocity. Position sense is essential to prevent steady-state errors. The arm impedance is affected considerably by the delay in the control loop and by the configuration of the motor control system. The achieved relation between muscle length and force is similar to the invariant characteristics laying at the basis of the equilibrium-point (EP) hypothesis. However, control of fast movements on the basis of EP along is not feasible, but required feedforward control. During training in a velocity-dependent force field, the impedance of the arm increases at first, due to enhanced cocontraction. Subsequently, both impedance and movement errors decrease, indicating a successful representation of the changed inverse dynamics.

Arm↗
PubMed1981

Proprioception and exodeviations.

When a slight adductive force is applied by forceps to the straight or master eye in exotropia, the exodeviated or slave eye assumes the straight position. The nature of this phenomenon was studied. The reflex occurred in an all-or-none form and showed little dose response, that is, the slave eye did not adduct beyond the straight position even if an extreme forced adduction was applied to the master eye. Once the slave eye assumed the straight position by the reflex it maintained this position, even when the master eye was covered, except when the master eye was released from the forced adduction. This reflex movement response occurred promptly on repeated forced adduction at 9 Hz on the master eye, while the visual movement of the eye was limited to follow 1 Hz movement of the target. The reflex occurred readily in the light but hardly at all in the dark. From these facts the authors conclude that the reflex is brought about as a result of interaction between the proprioceptive impulse and the visual input, where the former may chiefly constitute the signal, while the latter restricts the threshold of the reflex pathway.

Electrooculography↗
PubMed2004

Effect of submaximal contraction intensity in contract-relax proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation stretching.

OBJECTIVE: To determine if submaximal contractions used in contract-relax proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (CRPNF) stretching of the hamstrings yield comparable gains in hamstring flexibility to maximal voluntary isometric contractions (MVICs). METHOD: Randomised controlled trial. A convenience sample of 72 male subjects aged 18-27 was used. Subjects qualified by demonstrating tight hamstrings, defined as the inability to reach 70 degrees of hip flexion during a straight leg raise. Sixty subjects were randomly assigned to one of three treatment groups: 1, 20% of MVIC; 2, 60% of MVIC; 3, 100% MVIC. Twelve subjects were randomly assigned to a control group (no stretching). Subjects in groups 1-3 performed three separate six second CRPNF stretches at the respective intensity with a 10 second rest between contractions, once a day for five days. Goniometric measurements of hamstring flexibility using a lying passive knee extension test were made before and after the stretching period to determine flexibility changes. RESULTS: Paired t tests showed a significant change in flexibility for all treatment groups. A comparison of least squares means showed that there was no difference in flexibility gains between the treatment groups, but all treatment groups had significantly greater flexibility than the control group. CONCLUSION: CRPNF stretching using submaximal contractions is just as beneficial at improving hamstring flexibility as maximal contractions, and may reduce the risk of injury associated with PNF stretching.

Adolescent↗