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PubMed1989

[Maintenance and care of primates in Italy].

Investigation with nonhuman primates has made, and continues to make significant contribution to biomedical and behavioral research. Nowadays, laymen and scientists are becoming more concerned with the ways in which animals are maintained in captivity. In Italy, two laws (issued in 1931 and in 1941) enforce the regulations for keeping primates used for research. And more recently, the countries of the European Economic Community (EEC) have agreed on new regulations that should become law in these countries. Primates need to be in good physical and psychological health, and regulations should ensure and promote their well-being. Primates' psychological well-being is characterized by: a) good physical health; b) absence of stress; c) competence in dealing with environmental and social changes; d) broad behavioral repertoire and absence of stereotyped behaviors. Enrichment procedures aimed at improving the animals' psychological well-being are discussed.

Animal Husbandry↗
PubMed1989

Glucocorticoid resistance in humans and nonhuman primates.

In humans, the syndrome of cortisol resistance is characterized by the absence of signs and symptoms of Cushing's syndrome, elevated total and unbound plasma cortisol concentrations, and increases in urinary free cortisol excretion and plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone. In one family, a severely affected member had hypertension and hypokalemic alkalosis associated with increased plasma concentrations of corticosterone and deoxycorticosterone. These patients are resistant to suppression of the pituitary-adrenal axis by dexamethasone. Dexamethasone therapy, however, effectively corrected hypertension and hypokalemic alkalosis in the severely affected patient, without causing signs of glucocorticoid excess. The glucocorticoid receptor from these patients has a low affinity for glucocorticoids and is unstable during thermal activation. Both the molecular weight of the glucocorticoid receptor and the size of the corresponding mRNA are similar to those of normal controls. Transformation of B-lymphocytes with Epstein-Barr virus leads to induction of glucocorticoid receptors. Receptor induction, however, is lower in patient cells than those obtained from normal controls. This decreased induction parallels decreased expression of glucocorticoid receptor mRNA. Thus, in this form of glucocorticoid resistance the glucocorticoid receptor is abnormal and leads to diminished target organ responsiveness. Many New World primates exhibit glucocorticoid "resistance," without apparent pathology. These species have markedly elevated plasma cortisol, both total and unbound concentrations, increased urinary free cortisol excretion, and marked increases in plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone and beta-endorphin. The glucocorticoid receptors of these primates have decreased affinity for glucocorticoids, are thermolabile, and are not induced by Epstein-Barr virus transformation as indicated by specific binding and mRNA expression. Both the molecular weight of the glucocorticoid receptor and the size of the corresponding mRNA are similar to those of normal controls. Despite the high plasma cortisol concentrations in these primates, there is no sodium retention and aldosterone levels are actually increased. The kidney aldosterone receptor cross-reacts poorly with cortisol, explaining the absence of sodium retention. New World primates also have progesterone, estrogen, aldosterone, and vitamin D insensitivity, suggesting a common factor linking steroid hormone receptors.

Animals↗
PubMed1987

An overview of biohazards associated with nonhuman primates.

Because of their close phylogenetic relationship, human and nonhuman primates share susceptibility to many pathogens which do not affect lower animals. This similarity, which makes them invaluable models for studying human infectious diseases, also makes primate animals potentially dangerous to work with. The biohazards inherent in the use of nonhuman primates in biomedical research are zoonoses, injuries, and infectious agents introduced by study protocols. This review addresses the various kinds of parasites, fungi, rickettsiae, spirochetes, and viral agents found naturally occurring, or experimentally induced, in nonhuman primates with reference to measures for preventing spread among the animals or to personnel.

Animal Diseases↗
PubMed1984

Quantitative studies of the evolution of the thalamus in primates.

A quantitative study of the thalamus and metathalamus has been carried out on brains of six different primate species. The allometric formula devised by Stephan, Bauchot and Andy (1970) has been slightly modified as two steps have been utilized in order to attain the required magnification of the final photomicrograph (a positive print, as opposed to Stephan et al's negative print). The thalamic and metathalamic structures are divided on the basis of their developmental stages into two groups--paleothalamus and neothalamus, so that their proportions to each other in primate phylogeny can be estimated. The results show that the neothalamus extends the paleothalamus by two-thirds (2/3rds) in Tupaia and by more than three-quarters (3/4ths) in Cercopithecus. Of all the thalamic groups, the dorsolateral thalamic nuclear group is most dominant in all primate species, except Tupaia, where the ventrolateral thalamic nuclei are larger than all other nuclei. The pulvinar is the most dominant nucleus in all species except Tupaia. These quantitative results conform, in most places, with the observations of other researchers, while they do not agree much with the qualitative observations of the thalamus in the same species (Simmons 1974). How this study has a bearing on the phylogenetic positions of the Tupaioidea and the Tarsioidea in the Primate Order, is briefly discussed.

Animals↗
PubMed1976

Pregnancy zone protein analogue in pregnant and non-pregnant primates, and its decrease during pregnancy in some monkey species.

Rabbit antiserum to human pregnancy zone protein (PZP) cross-reacted with analogous proteins in several species of primates. The chimpanzee PZP showed reactions of identity with human PZP, while the PZP analogue in the orangutan, in four species of old world monkeys (pig-tailed, rhesus, cynomolgus and stump-tailed) and in a species of new world monkey (squirrel) showed equivalent reactions of partial identity with human PZP. In the chimpanzee and orangutan, the PZP analogue was present in low concentrations in non-pregnant animals, but as in the human, it increased quite appreciably during gestation. In the chimpanzee, this increase in pregnancy was about four-fold greater than in the human. In sharp contrast, in the old and new world monkeys, the PZP analogue was present in much higher concentrations in non-pregnant animals than it is in humans. In addition, during pregnancy the PZP analogue in these monkey species actually decreased during pregnancy. In the few cases studied, normal levels were regained about 1 month after delivery. A normal plasma protein, alpha2-macroglobin, was also studied in these primate species, because this protein shares some characteristics with PZP. Analogous alpha2-macroglobulin serum proteins were found in all the primates tested, but the observed gel diffusion identity patterns suggested that this protein was phylogenetically older than PZP. alpha2-macroglobulin increased slightly during human pregnancy, but in all the other primates studied, the alpha-macroglobulin analogue was either unchanged or slightly decreased during gestation.

Animals↗
PubMed1984

Comparison of brain structure volumes in insectivora and primates. IV. Non-cortical visual structures.

The relative size of the eyes, optic nerves, chiasms and tracts, and of the dorsal nucleus of the lateral geniculate body is distinctly larger in Primates than in (theoretically) isoponderous Insectivora. Within Insectivora, the relative size is lowest in moles, medium in shrews and hedgehog-like tenrecs, and largest in hedgehogs. Within Primates, all relative sizes are on the average larger in simians than in prosimians: the eyes to a small degree, the lateral geniculate bodies moderately and the optic nerves considerably larger. The ratio between eyes and optic nerves is large in night-active primates and distinctly smaller in day-active forms, with no overlap. The only night-active simian (Aotus trivirgatus) is in line with night-active prosimians. The relative size of the non-cortical visual structures in man is in line with that of day-active simians, whereas two of the great apes (orang-utan and gorilla) are relatively low. The size of the visual structures appears to depend mainly on functional requirements and is not, or is distinctly less, related to differences in the evolutionary level. The size of the visual structures of tree-shrews (Scandentia) shows special features which are not found in Insectivora and Primates and is compatible with their separation from these orders.

Animals↗
PubMed1983

Standard nomenclature for primate breeding and husbandry.

Managers of primate colonies seek to record colony data in a systematic way which will be helpful in daily management. Each colony develops individual record systems, tailored to its specific operations and budget. These diversified systems provide the base for a set of uniform record items, which enables information to be shared among institutions, and used for the overall management of a self-sustaining captive primate population, as well as for national planning of primate resources. The present report identifies basic information needed for local colony management and data items that require standard nomenclature. Such data will provide the basic demographic profiles unavailable at most primate colonies today.

Animal Husbandry↗
PubMed1980

Blood groups : immunogenetic markers in primate animals and their use in breeding and standardization.

The importance of immunogenetics for definition and standardization of laboratory animals has been demonstrated by their successful application for breeding of laboratory mice and rats, and in planned breeding of large domestic animals. Among the immunogenetic markers used, blood groups are the best known and generally considered as the most important. For close to two decades, serology and genetics of blood groups have been investigated by this Laboratory in the most commonly used laboratory primates, namely, macaques, (rhesus, crab-eating, pig-tailed and bonnet), baboon (olive, yellow and hamadryas) as well as chimpanzees. Blood groups of many other primate species have also been surveyed but in a less intensive manner. Blood groups of apes and monkeys are defined by standard methods of human serohematology, using both reagents developed for typing human blood and reagents obtained from the sera of immunized primate animals. The presently available reagents define, depending on species, between 10 and 25 blood groups in macaques, 20 to 25 blood groups in baboons and 45 types in chimpanzees. The available blood group genetic markers will be listed and their value for standardization and breeding of laboratory primates will be discussed.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Identification of complement receptor type 1-related proteins on primate erythrocytes.

The purpose of this study was to characterize the structure and function of the immune adherence receptor (CR1, CD35, C3b/C4b receptor) of primates. Western blotting, immunoprecipitation, ELISA, and affinity chromatography with homologous C3b and C4b were utilized. The major cross-reactive E membrane protein of ten species of primates tested was lower in m.w. than was human CR1 and fell into two size groups of 55 to 75 and 130 to 165 kDa. There was 10- to 100-fold more CR1 per primate E than human E. Five species also expressed lesser quantities of a protein similar in m.w. (approximately 200 kDa) to human CR1. In contrast to E, the major cross-reactive protein on PBMC was similar in size to human CR1. Four species also expressed lesser amounts of a lower m.w. protein on their PBMC of the same M(r) as that found on their E. Affinity chromatography demonstrated that the approximately 200-kDa form, if present, was recovered with a similar efficiency to that of human CR1. Three patterns of binding, however, were identified among the lower m.w. proteins: 1) C3b > or = C4b; 2) C4b > C3b; and C3b only or predominantly. The fact that these E proteins cross-react with Ab to human CR1, bind homologous C3b and, in most cases, C4b, and for some species represent the only such protein expressed on their E identifies them as immune adherence receptors. The 70-kDa CR1 of the chimpanzee E seems to arise by alternative splicing of the mRNA encoding the 200-kDa protein. These data raise interesting questions relative to the evolution of CR1 in primates and provide a basis for analysis of structure-function relationships among these size forms of CR1.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

The neurobiology of primate vision.

Studies of the visual system of the primate have taken two directions. One group of neurobiologists have studied the oculomotor system, while an entirely separate group have analysed sensory processing in the retinogeniculo-cortical circuits. However, the versatility and adaptability of the primate visual system is only possible because sensory and oculomotor processing are highly integrated. More than any other species, primates have exploited the advantages of extensive and coordinated binocular eye movements to improve their visuomotor performance. This chapter describes the basic apparatus of primate vision. The integrated nature of visuomotor function is illustrated by two examples: smooth pursuit eye movements and stereovision. Both of these tasks require huge amounts of sensory processing in many different visual centres and, simultaneously, very precise control of binocular eye position. These examples illustrate the difficulty and artificiality of assigning unique functions to any component part of the system. Each part of the visual system, from the retina through the brain to the oculomotoneurones that drive the eye muscles, is involved in many different functions. This integration within the system raises the problem of how we represent and recognize our visual world in the brain. The traditional view from sensory psychology is that single nerve cells in the visual cortex signal significant percepts. As this chapter shows, the activity of single cortical neurones is influenced by multiple factors, including the qualities of the visual stimulus, the position of the eyes, and the attention being paid to the stimulus. Thus, the activity of single neurones is an ambiguous indicator of both perceptual and motor events. Only the collective action of many nerve cells, it seems, represents unique percepts and actions. Given this indivisibility of function, patients with localized brain lesions will invariably present with multiple visuomotor deficits.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

Glycophorin B and glycophorin E genes arose from the glycophorin A ancestral gene via two duplications during primate evolution.

Human glycophorin A, B, and E genes are homologous from the 5'-flanking region to 1 kilobase downstream from the exon encoding the transmembrane region. Analysis of human Alu sequences at the transition site from the homologous to nonhomologous region suggested that the GPA gene most closely resembles the ancestral gene, whereas GPB and GPE genes arose by homologous recombination within the Alu repetitive sequence, and acquired 3' sequences from an unrelated gene (Kudo, S., and Fukuda, M. (1989) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 86, 4619-4623; Kudo, S., and Fukuda, M. (1990) J. Biol. Chem. 265, 1102-1110). To understand glycophorin gene evolution in primate phylogeny, transmembrane and Alu regions of several primate genomes were amplified by the polymerase chain reaction and their sequences were analyzed. These studies revealed that the GPA gene was present in all primates studied, and the GPB gene was present in pygmy chimpanzee, chimpanzee, and gorilla, but absent from orangutan and gibbon. GPE gene was present in all species with a GPB gene, but was detected in only 7 out of 16 gorillas. The 24-base pair insertion sequence found in the transmembrane exon of the human GPE gene was shown to be derived from the ancestral GPB gene and was inserted into the ancestral GPE gene prior to gorilla divergence. The recombination site in the GPA gene was confirmed to be within an Alu repetitive sequence. We conclude that GPB and GPE genes arose from an ancestral GPA gene via two gene duplications occurring during primate evolution, prior to gorilla divergence.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed1995

Molecular phylogeny and dissemination of human T-cell lymphotropic virus type I viewed within the context of primate evolution and human migration.

A renewed interest in the emergence and evolution of the primate T-cell lymphotropic viruses has followed the discovery of genetically distinct variants of human T-cell lymphotropic virus type I (HTLV-I) in Melanesia and Australia. Phylogenetic trees based on selected regions of the gag, pol, env and pX genes of HTLV-I from widely separated geographic regions and of simian T-cell lymphotropic virus type I (STLV-I) from African and Asian catarrhines, constructed using the neighbor-joining and maximum parsimony methods, indicated that the Australo-Melanesian and cosmopolitan strains of HTLV-I have evolved along separate geographically dependent lineages, with African STLV-I strains clustering with cosmopolitan HTLV-I strains and Asian STLV-I strains diverging from the common ancestral virus before the Australo-Melanesian HTLV-I strains. When viewed within the context of non-human primate evolution and human occupation of Australia and Melanesia, the rate of molecular change of HTLV-I and STLV-I is approximately 2.5-6.8 x 10(-7) substitutions per site per year. Overall, the sequence and phylogenetic analyses are in accord with interspecies virus transmission among non-human primates, as well as between non-human primates and humans, with independent evolution of HTLV-I in Southeast Asia and in Africa, and with dissemination of HTLV-I by forced or voluntary movements of human populations. The immunosuppressive and T-cell activation properties of HTLV-I places at added risk these Australian Aboriginal and Melanesian populations, some of which are in imminent threat of infection with human immunodeficiency virus type 1.

Africa↗
PubMed1998

Thalamic connections of the dorsomedial visual area in primates.

The dorsomedial visual area (DM) of owl monkeys is a cortical area that has been described recently in a range of primate species. To study the thalamic connections of this area, injections of several distinguishable neuroanatomical tracers were placed into DM in galagos, owl monkeys, squirrel monkeys, and macaque monkeys. The distribution of label was remarkably consistent across these diverse primate species. Labeled connections were densest within the pulvinar complex. Both the lateral and inferior divisions of the pulvinar, but not the medial division, had connections with DM. Within the inferior pulvinar of monkeys, central lateral and central medial nuclei had dense connections, and the medial and posterior nuclei had sparse connections with DM. Sparser connections were revealed in the lateral geniculate nucleus and the nucleus limitans. Anterograde label was also found in the superior colliculus. The consistencies in the pattern of subcortical projections across prosimian primates, New World monkeys, and Old World monkeys support the concept that DM is a visual area common to all primates. In addition, these results provide further evidence for proposed subdivisions of the inferior pulvinar.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Postsurgical assessment and long-term safety of recombinant adeno-associated virus-mediated gene transfer into the retinas of dogs and primates.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate, in dogs and primates, the short-term effects of subretinal injection and the safety of long-term recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV)-mediated transgene expression with respect to retinal morphology and function. METHODS: Subretinal delivery of rAAV (serotype 2, 4, or 5) was performed unilaterally in 14 beagles and 9 macaques. Postsurgical condition was evaluated during a 2-month follow-up study. Three dogs and 1 primate were examined for the long-term study. Green fluorescent protein expression was monitored by fluorescent retinal imaging. Retinal anatomy and function were assessed by angiography and electroretinography, respectively. RESULTS: Transgene expression was observed in 20 of 23 subretinally injected animals (both with and without vitrectomy). We did not detect an inflammatory response in any of the 23 treated subjects. In the long-term study, transgene expression was detected at the latest points evaluated: 36 months for the rAAV-2-injected dog, 24 months for the rAAV-4 and rAAV-5 dogs, and more than 18 months for the rAAV-4-injected primate. Angiography examinations were performed and showed no retinal abnormalities. Functional evaluation showed normal electroretinographic amplitude responses that were similar to those of the noninjected contralateral eyes. CONCLUSIONS: Subretinal injection of the rAAV vector in dogs and primates is a safe procedure with no perioperative complications and a high rate of successful retinal gene transfer. The retinal anatomy and function remained unchanged, despite persistent transgene expression up to 36 months postinjection with rAAV-2, -4, or -5. Additionally, we observed no other adverse effects, such as tumor formation due to possible insertional mutagenesis. These short- and long-term studies on rAAV transgene expression using large animals are encouraging for the prospects of ocular gene therapy applications in humans. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: These short- and long-term studies on rAAV transgene expression using large animals are encouraging for the prospects of ocular gene therapy applications in humans.

Animals↗
PubMed1996

Human (and some other primates') uterine teres ligament represents a mammalian developmental novelty.

BACKGROUND: The primordia of the structures developing into the mammalian male cremaster sacs emerge as well in females fetuses. In most species the structures developing from these primordia in females remain inconspicuous: the so-called uterine teres ligament consisting of a slender part across the uterine broad ligament and a more or less developed bulbous structure at the site where this ligament inserts into the inguinal abdominal bottom. Not many data are available concerning the growth, development, or function of the uterine teres ligament. In humans--and also in other "higher" female primates--the uterine teres ligament is a major structure consisting mainly of smooth musculature. It is attached to the ventral aspect of the tubo-uterine junction. From there it courses across the uterine broad ligament and extends, retroperitoneally, to the inguinal region where it pierces through the inguinal canal to end in the tissues ventral of the pubic bones. OBSERVATIONS: Analysis of the fetal development of the human uterine teres ligament, as compared with that of various other non-primate mammals, offers an explanation for its unusual anatomical condition. Evidence is conferred that, in human fetuses, there is no counterpart for the slender ligament across the broad ligament in other mammals. Instead, the homologue of the rudimentary bulbous structure in the abdominal bottom of non-primate females develops into a strong muscular structure which is directly connected to the (para-)menonephric duct wall. CONCLUSION: It is concluded that the human uterine teres ligament is to be judged a structure different from that of other, non-primate, mammals. It is speculated that the unusual structure of the human teres ligament is related to one or more of the many unusual features of human uterine development: as a single organ (uterus simplex), with a position deep in the abdominal cavity below the pelvic brim, and far away from the posterior abdominal wall. The unusual anatomical position may require an unusual construction of the uterine suspensory apparatus of which the teres ligament is one component.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Survival and reproduction in the first two years following a large-scale primate colony move and social reorganization.

(Macaca nemestrina) and baboon (Papio cynocephalus, Papio anubis, and hybrids) breeding colonies from the Primate Field Station (PFS) (Medical Lake, WA) to the Tulane Regional Primate Research Center (Covington, LA). Colony records on all 598 pigtailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina) and 157 baboons (P. c. anubis) shipped to the Tulane Primate Center from the PFS breeding colony were used for analysis of species, sex, age, origin, current status, and the number of animals born at Tulane and their status. To provide comparative statistics, colony records on all 1,002 macaques and 258 baboons alive on 1 January 1991 at the Field Station were retrieved in the same manner as the Tulane data. Overall survival rates of macaques in the months following the move (71.7%) were similar to those associated with the Arashiyama West colony move from Japan to Texas. In our colony, significantly lower survival following the move was seen only in older (10 years+) macaques, while survival in other age groups was slightly lower than in the comparison year of 1991 at the Primate Field Station. Captive-bred macaques exhibited higher survival than wild-caught animals. Infant survival at Tulane was not significantly different than in pre-move years. Baboons fared well in the move, with no significant differences in mortality or reproduction when compared with the 1991 Medical Lake baboon colony.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Functions of corticotropin-releasing hormone in anthropoid primates: from brain to placenta.

Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) is an ancient regulatory molecule. The CRH hormone family has at least four ligands, two receptors, and a binding protein. Its well-known role in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is only one of many. The expression of CRH and its related peptides is widespread in peripheral tissue, with important functions in the immune system, energy metabolism, and female reproduction. For example, CRH is involved in the implantation of fertilized ova and in maternal tolerance to the fetus. An apparently unique adaptation has evolved in anthropoid primates: placental expression of CRH. Placental CRH stimulates the fetal adrenal zone, an adrenal structure unique to primates, to produce dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS), which is converted to estrogen by the placenta. Cortisol induced from the fetal and maternal adrenal glands by placental CRH induces further placental CRH expression, forming a positive feedback system that results in increasing placental production of estrogen. In humans, abnormally high placental expression of CRH is associated with pregnancy complications (e.g., preterm labor, intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), and preeclampsia). Within anthropoid primates, there are at least two patterns of placental CRH expression over gestation: monkeys differ from great apes (and humans) by having a midgestational peak in CRH expression. The functional significance of these differences between monkeys and apes is not yet understood, but it supports the hypothesis that placental CRH performs multiple roles during gestation. A clearer understanding of the diversity of patterns of placental CRH expression among anthropoid primates would aid our understanding of its role in human pregnancy.

Animals↗
PubMed1991

Human nerve growth factor prevents degeneration of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons in primates.

Basal forebrain cholinergic neurons respond to nerve growth factor (NGF), and it has been suggested that the administration of NGF might prevent their degeneration in patients with Alzheimer's disease. One major prerequisite to be fulfilled before the consideration of clinical trials of NGF in patients with Alzheimer's disease is the demonstration that human NGF affects basal forebrain cholinergic neurons in primates. In the present study, we used a recombinant human nerve growth factor (rhNGF), which we previously showed to be active on rat basal forebrain cholinergic neurons, in nonhuman primates with a unilateral transection of the fornix (a well-established model for the induction of retrograde degenerative changes in septal cholinergic neurons). After the lesion, one group of animals received rhNGF and a second group received vehicle solution for 2 weeks. In animals receiving vehicle, the medial septal nucleus ipsilateral to the lesion showed reductions in number (55%) and size of cell bodies immunoreactive for NGF receptor and choline acetyltransferase. In Nissl stains, many cells showed reduced size and basophilia. The rhNGF completely prevented alterations in the number and size of NGF receptor- and choline acetyltransferase-immunoreactive neurons in the medial septal nucleus and reversed atrophy in a subpopulation of large, basophilic medial septal nucleus neurons, as identified by Nissl stains. The effects of rhNGF were identical to those of mouse NGF, which we have previously used in the same primate lesion paradigm. The restoration of the phenotype of injured cholinergic septal neurons by rhNGF in the monkey raises the possibility that this factor may be used to ameliorate acetylcholine-dependent memory impairments that occur in aged nonhuman primates. In concert, results of the present investigation provide critical information for the future use of NGF in patients with neurological disorders that affect NGF-responsive cells in the peripheral and central nervous systems.

Acetylcholinesterase↗