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PubMed1996

Language and Operations in Children's Class Inclusion Reasoning: The Operational Semantic Theory of Reasoning

In this article we critique two prominent theories of reasoning-mental logic and mental models-and argue that reasoning does not consist of either applying logical rules or constructing mental models. Instead, we propose an operational semantic theory of reasoning, according to which reasoning is based on children's operational understanding of key terms in a given problem. We then go on to consider an important recent developmental theory of reasoning, fuzzy-trace theory. In order to illustrate the view of reasoning proposed here we report a study of class inclusion. Dramatic differences in class inclusion performance were found as the result of linguistic context; performance was significantly higher when an explicit request for a subclass comparison preceded the class inclusion question as compared to a standard condition when the class inclusion question alone was asked. This was the case, however, only when the prior subclass comparison question referred to the same dimensions as the class inclusion question and not when irrelevant subclasses were referred to. Children's performance was also better when they sorted the materials into the supraordinate class as compared to the subclasses, but not when the experimenter sorted them for the child. These effects due to the operational and linguistic manipulations are discussed in terms of a general operational semantic theory of reasoning.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1981

Intranuclear inclusion bodies within neurons of spinal and cranial ganglia in three cyprinid species.

A histological examination of 205 fish representing four cyprinid species from a site 2.5 miles north of Wheeling, West Virginia, on the Ohio River revealed large (2--4 micron) cuboidal intranuclear inclusion bodies (NIB's) within neurons in the cranial and spinal ganglia of three species. Because the minnows had been caught during a yearly sampling of fish, an additional 63 minnows were taken the following year. Inclusions were again observed. The NIB's stain strongly with phloxine as well as with Mallory and Giemsa stains, appearing bright red or pink. Various histochemical tests indicated that the inclusions contain protein and lipid but no carbohydrates or nucleic acids. No heavy metals were detected by electron probe analysis. At the ultrastructural level the inclusions exhibit subunits resembling hexagons measuring 326--350 nm. Previously suggested causes for such inclusions include effects of viruses, aging, drugs, cellular transformation, and an altered metabolic state of affected cells.

Animals↗

PubMed1984

Intraepithelial inclusions resembling human biondi bodies in the choroid plexus of an aged chimpanzee.

Complex intracellular inclusion bodies of the Biondi type were observed in the choroidal epithelium (choroid plexus of the lateral ventricle) of a 43-year-old male chimpanzee. The specific components of these inclusions are bundles of filaments 8-15 nm in diameter, which are associated with lipid droplets and a wide variety of unidentified inclusions of differing electron density. Biondi bodies are characteristic inclusions of the choroid plexus of aged humans but have been claimed to be absent from the choroidal epithelium of senescent animals including nonhuman primates. The present finding of Biondi body-like inclusions in an aged chimpanzee underscores the usefulness of nonhuman primates as models for studies of aging, seeking to gain a better understanding of gerontological aspects of the human brain.

Animals↗

PubMed1981

Intranuclear filamentous inclusions in the gastro-entero-pancreatic (GEP) endocrine cells of birds.

Intranuclear filamentous inclusions were found in the normal endocrine cells of the avian stomach and pancreas. These inclusions were composed of a bundle of closely packed filaments (6-8 nm in diameter), being ultrastructurally similar to those found in the nucleus of various neurons. Most of them appeared as single rod- or spindle-shaped bodies; aggregations of two or more inclusions were rarely seen within a single nucleus. Cells with an intranuclear inclusion often contained a cytoplasmic fibrillar bundle similar to the intranuclear inclusion.

Animals↗

PubMed1992

Basophilic inclusions in sporadic juvenile amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: an immunocytochemical and ultrastructural study.

This report concerns immunocytochemical and ultrastructural studies on the basophilic inclusions in two cases of sporadic juvenile amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). The inclusion had a globular, irregular-shaped, or sometimes fragmented appearance. Ultra-structurally, the inclusions consisted mainly of thick filamentous structures associated with granules. Focal neurofilamentous accumulations were occasionally observed among the granulofilamentous structures. The basophilic inclusions occasionally showed granular reaction product deposits with an antibody to ubiquitin. The inclusions did not react with antibodies to phosphorylated neurofilament and to tau protein.

Adult↗

PubMed1990

An adult-onset case of sporadic motor neuron disease with basophilic inclusions.

A 36-year-old man developed motor neuron signs consisting of weakness and atrophy of the right upper limb, which progressed to involve the other limbs along with development of upper motor neuron signs including pseudobulbar palsy. He died 8.5 years after onset. Bilateral precentral gyri and putamina were grossly atrophic. In addition to severe degeneration of bilateral pyramidal tracts and marked neuronal cell loss of the precentral gyri and putamina, basophilic inclusions were widely distributed in the motor cortex, putamina, general somatic motor neurons such as the hypoglossal nucleus and spinal anterior horns, and other areas like the red nucleus and inferior olive. The inclusions were clearly shown with Nissl stain to be anilinophilic irregular masses with distinct rims. Ultrastructurally the inclusions appeared to consist of thick filamentous structures of 12-25 nm in diameter studded with electron-dense ribosome-like granules. Thick filamentous profiles were relatively short or occasionally fragmentary, haphazardly mingled with various amounts of granules and other organelles. No prominent accumulation of 10-nm neurofilaments or eosinophilic inclusions like Bunina bodies were found. The inclusions were indistinguishable from those reported in so-called "juvenile" amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

Adult↗

PubMed1979

The class-inclusion task: question form and distributive comparisons.

The class-inclusion task is regarded by Piaget as a measure of the child's mastery of the structure of hierarchical classification. Class-inclusion was improved by changing the wording of the question to conform to standard English usage. A theoretical argument is offered that the child's difficulties with this task derive from confusion of collective comparisons, in which properties of classes are compared, and distributive comparisons, in which properties of elements are compared. A grammatical constraint on expression of distributive comparisons--an element of a class cannot be compared to an element of an included subclass--is hypothesized to be overgeneralized to expressions referring to collective comparisons such as the class-inclusion task. This hypothesis accounts for the improvement in class-inclusion performance with changes in wording of the question and for the finding that young children's response to class-inclusion questions and to ungrammatical requests for comparison of an element of a class and an element of an included subclass are similar: the children respond readily but understand wrongly that the comparison involves coordinate classes.

Child↗

PubMed1978

Axonal inclusions in the crab Hemigrapsus nudus.

Light microscopic examination of living giant axons from the walking legs of Hemigrapsus nudus revealed intra-axonal inclusions which were usually several tens of micrometers long and about 5 micron wide. The inclusions were filled with small light-scattering particles. The inclusions were shown, by thin section electron microscopy, to be composed largely 68% by volume) of mitochondria. Each inclusion was surrounded by membrane bounded spaces which are presumed to represent a part of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum. Similar inclusions were not found in the leg axons of a variety of other decapod crustaceans.

Animals↗

PubMed1991

Age-related accumulation of congophilic fibrillar inclusions in endocrine cells.

Intracellular fibrillar congophilic inclusions are well known as neurofibrillary tangles in neurons and as Biondi bodies in choroid plexus epithelial cells. Recently similar amyloid-like inclusions in adrenal cortical cells were described (Eriksson and Westermark 1990). This study on 150 adrenal glands confirms these observations. In our material the age-related accumulation of congophilic inclusions starts earlier (in the sixth decade) and reaches a higher incidence (42.7%). We found similar intracellular inclusions in other endocrine organs, for example in the anterior lobe of the pituitary, in the cells of parathyroid glands and in Sertoli cells. The age-related incidence of these fibrillar inclusions in the pituitary was 68%: the co-incidence with interstitial amyloid deposits was 49.5%. Thus the intracellular accumulation of congophilic fibrils in old age is a wide-spread phenomenon and occurs not only in neurons but also in endocrine cells (adrenal, pituitary and parathyroid glands) and in active secretory cells (choroid plexus and Sertoli cells).

Adrenal Glands↗

PubMed1996

Full inclusion and students with autism.

The concept of "full inclusion" is that students with special needs can and should be educated in the same settings as their normally developing peers with appropriate support services, rather than being placed in special education classrooms or schools. According to advocates the benefits of full inclusion are increased expectations by teachers, behavioral modeling of normally developing peers, more learning, and greater self-esteem. Although the notion of full inclusion has appeal, especially for parents concerned about their children's rights, there is very little empirical evidence for this approach, especially as it relates to children with autism. This manuscript addresses the literature on full inclusion and its applicability for students with autism. Although the goals and values underlying full inclusion are laudable, neither the research literature nor thoughtful analysis of the nature of autism supports elimination of smaller, highly structured learning environments for some students with autism.

Autistic Disorder↗

PubMed2004

Qualitative and quantitative determination of micro-inclusions by automated SEM/EDX analysis.

With the help of an automated SEM/EDX analysis system non-metallic micro-inclusions in steel can be detected on a metallographically prepared surface area. The system makes it possible to determine position, size, shape and composition of each particle. Usually more than 1000 inclusions are found on one scan area. Therefore a new offline evaluation method has been developed to classify the large amount of inclusions and calculate specific size and shape data. A summary sheet is created to show the area contents and the mean values of all important properties for each class. Size and XY distributions as well as binary and ternary phase diagrams are drawn to depict the results. The strengths of this analytical technique are demonstrated by evaluation of an LC (low-carbon) steel. Alumina, common spinel, sulfide and oxisulfide inclusions could be identified as dominant inclusion types in LC steel.

Electron Probe Microanalysis↗

PubMed2006

Inclusion-induced boundary layers in lipid vesicles.

The equilibrium shapes of lipid vesicles are perturbed by rigid inclusions. In a two-dimensional vesicle, that may also model a cylindrically elongated tubule, the shape modifications can be determined analytically, and turn out to be significant even far from the inclusion. On the contrary, previous numerical work has given evidence that in the three-dimensional case the shape perturbations decay quite rapidly and are negligible a few inclusion radii away. In this paper, we use the tools of asymptotic analysis to derive analytically the shape of the boundary layer induced by the inclusion. As a result, we are able to determine the dominant part of the free-energy perturbation that, in turn, allows to identify the vesicle points where the inclusion prefers to sit.

Computer Simulation↗

PubMed1993

Lewy body-like inclusions in Onuf's nucleus from two cases of sporadic amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

Lewy body-like inclusions in Onuf's neurons from two sporadic cases with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) were reported. These inclusions in Onuf's neurons as well as those found in the anterior horn cells were immunostained with an anti-ubiquitin antibody. Neuropathological examination of these two cases revealed neuronal loss and associated gliosis in the anterior horn of the spinal cord and hypoglossal nuclei, and degeneration of the corticospinal tract. In addition to Lewy body-like inclusions, ubiquitinated skein-like inclusions, Bunina bodies, or both were observed in the cytoplasm of the remaining neurons in the anterior horn of the spinal cord, and, to a lesser degree, in Onuf's nucleus. Spheroids and cord-like thickening of cell processes were also found in the anterior horn of the spinal cord. Histometrical study of Onuf's nucleus revealed atrophy and loss of Onuf's neurons from Case 1 with a long clinical course. Similar cases of motor neuron disease with or without tract degeneration have been reported, but the presence of Lewy body-like inclusions in Onuf's nucleus is reported here for the first time. It is suggested that Onuf's nucleus is more or less involved in the degenerative process characteristic of ALS.

Aged↗

PubMed1992

Hippocampal and neocortical ubiquitin-immunoreactive inclusions in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis with dementia.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) patients with dementia were found to have ubiquitin-immunoreactive (IR) inclusions in the dentate granule cells of the hippocampus. These inclusions were also present in some patients with minor cognitive changes but otherwise typical ALS. Ubiquitin-IR inclusions were also found in neurons of superficial layers of the frontal and temporal cortex and in the entorhinal cortex in patients with ALS and dementia. These ubiquitin-IR inclusions were non-argyrophilic, and were not labelled by antibodies which identify Alzheimer's neurofibrillary tangles and Pick bodies, nor were they typical of cortical Lewy bodies. Our findings indicate that ubiquitin-IR inclusions in small neurons of the hippocampus, entorhinal area and neocortex are a characteristic feature of degeneration of non-motor cortex in ALS, and are particularly associated with cognitive impairment and dementia of frontal lobe type.

Adult↗

PubMed1984

Comparison of iodine- and fluorescein-labeled monoclonal antibodies for detection of Chlamydia trachomatis inclusions in cells grown in glass vials.

A fluorescein-labeled monoclonal antibody was compared with the iodine stain for the detection of chlamydial inclusions in McCoy cells grown on cover slips in glass vials. The remainder of the original specimen extracts in 2-sucrose phosphate transport medium from 100 specimens (50 male, urethra; 50 female, cervix), stored at -70 degrees C and previously determined to be culture positive for Chlamydia trachomatis by the iodine stain, were inoculated into vials containing monolayers of McCoy cells. Cover slips were coded and examined microscopically after 40 hr at 35 degrees C. The mean numbers of inclusions detected by iodine and by immunofluorescence were the same. One-half of the specimens had eight or fewer inclusions present. There was a trend indicating that less time was required for microscopic examination of cover slips for chlamydial inclusions with immunofluorescence than with the iodine-staining method. The tagged monoclonal antibody is a high-quality immunodiagnostic reagent for use in the immunofluorescence test; however, our data derived from stored specimen extracts indicate equivalence of detection of inclusions in the glass vial system compared to iodine.

Antibodies, Monoclonal↗

PubMed2004

Evidence for the 2:1 molecular recognition and inclusion behaviour between beta- and gamma-cyclodextrins and cinchonine.

Cinchonine (Cin) is the primary drug of choice in the treatment of malaria, but its poor solubility has restricted its use via the oral route. Cyclodextrins (CDs) form inclusion complexes with cinchonine to form soluble complexes. This interaction was investigated by solubility studies, electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS), and molecular modeling. ESI-MS evaluated successfully the nature of the solution-phase inclusion complexes. The experimental results showed that not only 1:1, but also stable 2:1 inclusion complexes can be formed between CDs and Cin. Multi-component complexes of beta-CD-Cin-beta-CD (1:1:1), gamma-CD-Cin-gamma-CD (1:1:1), and beta-CD-Cin-gamma-CD (1:1:1) were found in equimolar beta- and gamma-CD mixtures with Cin. The formation of 2:1 and multi-component 1:1:1 non-covalent CD-Cin complexes indicates that beta- and gamma-CD are able to form sandwich-type inclusion complexes with Cin in high concentrations. The phase-solubility diagram showed non-linear type A(p) profile, indicating that more than one cyclodextrin molecule is involved in the complexation of one guest molecule. Molecular modeling calculations have been carried out to rationalize the experimental findings and predict the lowest energy molecular structure of inclusion complex.

Antimalarials↗

PubMed2004

Delivery of all trans-retinoic acid (RA) to hepatocyte cell line from RA/galactosyl alpha-cyclodextrin inclusion complex.

All trans-retinoic acid (RA) plays a role in regulation of P450RAI gene expression. In this study, hepatocyte cell line (HepG2) was used to study an effect of RA released from RA/galactosyl alpha-cyclodextrin (GCD) inclusion complex on regulation of P450RAI gene expression. A delivery system composed of RA/GCD inclusion complex was applied because RA is poorly water soluble, and organic solvents used to dissolve it often interfere with cytotoxicity. Solubility of RA in water was increased by forming complex with GCD. Inclusion complex between GCD and RA was checked by (1)H-nuclear magnetic resonance, Fourier transformation infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The chemical shifts of the interior and exterior GCD protons in the presence of RA indicated that the RA was included within the GCD macrocycle cavity. The carbonyl band of RA and crystalline peak of RA in RA/GCD inclusion complex disappeared from FT-IR and XRD measurements, respectively, indication of inclusion complex between RA and GCD. From the observation of fluorescence micrograph of hepatocytes and flow cytometry measurement of HepG2, the internalization of fluorescein isothiocyanate-GCD by the hepatocyte occurred. Gene expression of P450RAI in HepG2 by delivery of RA from RA/GCD complex was observed.

Cell Line↗

PubMed2005

Enhancement of the release of azelaic acid through the synthetic membranes by inclusion complex formation with hydroxypropyl-beta-cyclodextrin.

The aim of this study was to investigate the release rates of azelaic acid and azelaic acid-hydroxypropyl-beta-cyclodextrin (HPbetaCD) inclusion complex through three types of synthetic membranes, namely cellophane, silicone and elastomer membranes. Solid inclusion complexes of azelaic acid-HPbetaCD at the molar ratio of 1:1 were prepared by coevaporation and freeze-drying methods, subsequently characterized by differential scanning calorimetry, X-ray diffractometry and dissolution studies. Solid inclusion complex obtained by coevaporation method which exhibited the inclusion of azelaic acid in the HPbetaCD cavity and gave the highest dissolution rate of azelaic acid was selected for the release study. Release studies of azelaic acid and this complex through the synthetic membranes were conducted using vertical Franz diffusion cells at 30 degrees C for 6 days. The release rates of azelaic acid through the synthetic membranes were enhanced by the formation of inclusion complex with HPbetaCD at the molar ratio of 1:1, with the increasing fluxes of about 41, 81 and 28 times of the uncomplexed system in cellophane, silicone and elastomer membranes, respectively. The result from this study can be applied for the development of azelaic acid for topical use.

2-Hydroxypropyl-beta-cyclodextrin↗