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PubMed2001

Motivational interviews as goal assessment for persons with psychiatric disability.

A necessary first step in the psychosocial treatment of persons with severe mental illness is helping them identify their goals. Unfortunately, goal assessment is often viewed as a categorical process in which individuals list needs for which they require services. Motivational interviews provide a more sophisticated approach in which persons specify the costs and benefits to each of the needs in the list. Benefits define the reasons why a person should pursue a goal; costs define barriers to achieving that goal. The basic mechanisms for understanding and implementing motivational interviews are summarized. Ways to circumvent barriers to motivational interviews are also discussed.

Disability Evaluation↗
PubMed2001

Optimism, goal conflict, and stressor-related immune change.

Although optimism is usually conceptualized as a buffer against stressor-related changes in the immune system, some contradictory findings have emerged. The present research proposed that when facing conflicting goals, optimists are more likely to remain engaged with both goals and to experience higher short-term stress as a consequence. Optimists were therefore predicted to fare worse than pessimists immunologically when facing academic-social goal conflict but to fare better when not facing goal conflict. In the Study 1 sample (n = 48), optimism was associated with higher numbers of CD4+ cells among first-year law students who were less likely to have academic-social conflict and with lower numbers of CD4+ cells at midsemester among students who were more likely to have conflict. The results replicated in the Study 2 sample of law students (n = 22) using delayed-type hypersensitivity testing. Optimists may be subject to short-term physiological costs in their persistence to gain long-term rewards.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

The relationship between health and human services and the personal goal-directed activities of persons living with AIDS.

This study evaluates the relationship between the social climate from different services and the personal goal-directed activities of 224 individuals with AIDS. The study's results supported the main hypothesis that "recipient" and "participatory" service involvement uniquely influence personal goal-directed activities, even after considering individuals with AIDS' physical symptoms, psychological distress, income, and recruitment site. Income and involvement with participatory services were both positively related to the amount of personal goal-directed activity. Longitudinal analyses suggest that personal initiative contributes to the subsequent amount of personal goal-directed activities a person pursues. These results suggest further examination of factors contributing to the selection of different service types and of the processes underlying the relationship between participatory services and positive outcomes for clients with AIDS.

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome↗
PubMed1989

Goal utility, task satisfaction, and the self-appraisal hypothesis of type A behavior.

Strube's (1987) self-appraisal model of Type A behavior suggests that externally mediated performance goals that are useful for assessing task-related competencies will possess greater utility and be more satisfying to Type A persons than to Type B persons. In contrast, because Type Bs may have an aversion to competency verifications, they should be more satisfied than Type As when goals are uninformative about task-related competencies. The 102 undergraduate Ss performed either a word puzzle or proofreading task under 1 of 4 goal conditions that varied in terms of the goal's instrumentality for assessing competencies and for obtaining a financial incentive. Results are generally consistent with this prediction, thereby providing verification for one of the more basic propositions derived from the self-appraisal model.

Achievement↗
PubMed1992

Possible self-complexity and affective reactions to goal-relevant evaluation.

The complexity of people's self-concept appears to be inversely related to the intensity of their reactions to evaluative feedback about present goals and abilities (Linville, 1985, 1987). The idea that the complexity of individuals' possible self-concept similarly mediates reactions to feedback regarding future goals was investigated. Two preliminary studies suggested that complexity of the actual self only explains 20% to 30% of the variance in possible self-complexity. Three studies were conducted. Support was found for the idea that possible self-complexity mediates affective reactions to evaluative feedback about future goals and actual self-complexity mediates affective reactions to evaluative feedback about present goals. The findings underscore the independent roles of the organization of actual and possible self-concepts in affective processes.

Achievement↗
PubMed1994

Goal setting, achievement orientation, and intrinsic motivation: a mediational analysis.

This study investigated the interactive effects of achievement orientation and evaluative focus of assigned, task-specific goals on intrinsic motivation for an enjoyable pinball game. Regression analyses revealed that the effect of performance or mastery-focused goals on intrinsic motivation varied as a function of achievement orientation. Specifically, the provision of task-specific standards with a performance focus enhanced intrinsic motivation for achievement-oriented individuals, whereas the assignment of such goals proved deleterious to the intrinsic motivation of those low in achievement orientation. Individuals low in achievement orientation displayed the highest levels of intrinsic motivation when provided with mastery-focused goals. A similar pattern of effects was obtained on competence valuation and task involvement, both of which were additionally validated as mediators of the direct effects on intrinsic motivation.

Achievement↗
PubMed1997

Appraisal and goal processes as predictors of psychological well-being in bereaved caregivers.

Narratives of 30 caregivers were scored for appraisals and coping responses following the death of their partners from AIDS. Appraisals were identified as valenced beliefs, emotions, and goal outcomes, whereas coping responses included goals and plans of action. The proportion of positive appraisals predicted long-term goals and plans and psychological well-being at both bereavement and 12 months later. Positive appraisals were correlated with positive moral and positive states of mind. The latter were negatively correlated with partner-centered, short-term plans. Positive appraisals were negatively correlated with depressive mood. Caregivers, who reported proportionately more positive appraisals during caregiving and after the loss of their partner, were more likely to have future- and self-oriented goals and plans and to demonstrate positive well-being at bereavement and better recovery 12 months later than were those who reported more negative appraisals.

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome↗
PubMed1998

Avoidance personal goals and the personality-illness relationship.

Three studies demonstrated that avoidance personal goals are positively related to physical symptom reports. These results were obtained (a) using both longitudinal and retrospective methodologies and (b) controlling for neuroticism and other alternative predictor variables. In 2 of the studies, a process model was validated in which perceived competence and perceived controlledness were shown to mediate the observed relationship between avoidance goals and symptomatology. Specifically, avoidance goals predicted perceived competence and perceived controlledness, and these variables in turn predicted longitudinal and retrospective symptom reports. Ancillary results help clarify the unique roles of neuroticism and avoidance goals as predictors of physical symptomatology.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Goal striving, need satisfaction, and longitudinal well-being: the self-concordance model.

An integrative model of the conative process, which has important ramifications for psychological need satisfaction and hence for individuals' well-being, is presented. The self-concordance of goals (i.e., their consistency with the person's developing interests and core values) plays a dual role in the model. First, those pursuing self-concordant goals put more sustained effort into achieving those goals and thus are more likely to attain them. Second, those who attain self-concordant goals reap greater well-being benefits from their attainment. Attainment-to-well-being effects are mediated by need satisfaction, i.e., daily activity-based experiences of autonomy, competence, and relatedness that accumulate during the period of striving. The model is shown to provide a satisfactory fit to 3 longitudinal data sets and to be independent of the effects of self-efficacy, implementation intentions, avoidance framing, and life skills.

Female↗
PubMed1992

Personal goals of older adults: issues in assessment and prediction.

This study identifies dimensions of individual difference in the content of older adults' personal goals and examines demographic, loss-related, and contextual influences on these goals. Results are based on the responses of 179 elders to a 112-item inventory designed to tap achievement, maintenance, disengagement, and coping goals in 16 life domains. Factor analyses yielded 10 dimensions that describe themes of global motivation, concerns about support and desired pace, and complexity of life. Demographic disadvantages and age-related transitions were related to greater desire for disengagement, support, and stability. Elders who were married and healthy were more likely to report a desire for an energetic life-style. Results are discussed in terms of implications for future research on elders' goals as a context for understanding the meaning of self-evaluation and environmental influences on aging.

Achievement↗
PubMed1994

Self-percepts of control in middle and later adulthood: buffering losses by rescaling goals.

The authors propose a model of how a sense of control is maintained in later adulthood through shifts in the subjective importance of developmental goals. Developmental goals and control beliefs were repeatedly assessed over an 8-year interval on a core sample of 735 participants (initial age range: 30-59 years). The findings reveal a high degree of stability in generalized perceptions of control even in the transition to later adulthood. In line with predictions, moderated multiple regressions indicated(a) that the degree to which self-percepts of control within a particular goal domain affect an individual's general sense of control depends on the personal importance of that domain, and (b) that losses of control within a goal domain affect general perceptions of control to a lesser degree if the importance of the respective domain is downscaled within the same longitudinal interval. Implications for theories of depression as well as for successful aging are discussed.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2000

Women's and men's personal goals during the transition to parenthood.

To investigate how women's and men's personal goals change during the transition to parenthood, the authors studied 348 women (152 primiparous and 196 multiparous) and 277 of their partners at 3 times: early in pregnancy, 1 month before the birth, and 3 months afterward. At each measurement, participants completed the Personal Project Analysis questionnaire (B. R. Little, 1983). The results showed that during pregnancy women became more interested in goals related to childbirth, the child's health, and motherhood and less interested in achievement-related goals. After the birth women were more interested in family- and health-related issues. These changes were more substantial among the primiparous than among the multiparous mothers. Although the men's personal goals changed during the transition to parenthood, these changes were less substantial than those found among the women.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2001

Explication of the coping goal construct: implications for coping and reemployment.

This longitudinal study developed a reemployment coping goal construct and examined its role in a job-loss context. Several predictors of displaced workers' reemployment coping goal intensity were examined: human capital, employment commitment, internal coping resources, and anticipation of job loss. Results show that human capital, employment commitment, internal coping resources, and anticipation of job loss positively predicted a reemployment coping goal. Human capital also directly predicted reemployment. Finally, unemployed individuals' reemployment coping goal intensity positively predicted job-search effort, which positively predicted reemployment. Implications for the process of coping with job loss and future research are discussed.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2002

Goal orientation and ability: interactive effects on self-efficacy, performance, and knowledge.

This study examined the direct relationship of goal orientation--and the interaction of goal orientation and cognitive ability--with self-efficacy, performance, and knowledge in a learning context. The authors argue that whether a particular type of goal orientation is adaptive or not adaptive depends on individuals' cognitive ability. Consistent with previous research, learning orientation was positively related to self-efficacy, performance, and knowledge, whereas performance orientation was negatively related to performance only. The interactions between goal orientation and ability also supported several hypotheses. As expected, learning orientation was generally adaptive for high-ability individuals but had no effect for low-ability individuals. In contrast, the effects of performance orientation were contingent on both individuals' level of cognitive ability and the outcome examined.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2003

Hierarchical representation of motives in goal setting.

The authors developed a framework for thinking about motives in goal setting. The reasons for choosing a particular goal are represented in a hierarchical network of motives. To uncover context-specific motives and their interconnections, the authors propose a procedure based on the elicitation of justifications for one's goal. The authors applied the procedure to the motivation of volunteering to join the Italian Army by officers (N = 151) and 3 groups of enlisted soldiers (Garibaldi Brigade, N = 141; Folgore Brigade, N = 144; and volunteers in training, N = 150). The resulting idiographic motives and linkages between motives were validated by regressing attitudes, intentions to reenlist, and commitment toward the army on motives and linkages between motives. A heuristic nomothetic summary of goals, arranged in an interconnected hierarchy, was derived.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Raters who pursue different goals give different ratings.

J. N. Cleveland and K. R. Murphy (1992) suggested that phenomena such as rater errors and interrater disagreements could be understood in terms of differences in the goals pursued by various raters. We measured 19 rating goals of students at the beginning of a semester, grouped them into scales, and correlated these with teacher evaluations collected at the end of the semester. We found significant multiple correlations, both within classes and in an analysis of the pooled sample (adjusting for instructor mean differences, incremental R2 =.08). Measures of rating goals obtained after raters had observed a significant proportion of ratee performance accounted for variance (incremental R2 =.07) not accounted for by measures of goals obtained at the beginning of the semester.

Goals↗
PubMed2005

Organizational partnerships in China: self-interest, goal interdependence, and opportunism.

Opportunism in organizational partnerships may be understood in terms of how partners conclude that their self-interests are related to each other. When partners believe that their goals are competitively but not cooperatively related, they are tempted to pursue their self-interests opportunistically. Cognitive understandings and values of a shared vision may help partners believe their goals are cooperatively related. Results from 103 pairs of customer and supplier organizations support the argument that partnerships are not inevitably threatened by opportunism. Using structural equation analysis, the authors suggested that shared vision can help partners develop cooperative goals that lead to low levels of opportunism. These results suggest that a shared vision and cooperative goals are important foundations for effective organizational partnerships.

China↗
PubMed2006

Self-regulation: from goal orientation to job performance.

The authors investigated the effects on job performance of 3 forms of goal orientation and 4 self-regulation (SR) tactics. In a longitudinal field study with salespeople, learning and performance-prove goal orientation predicted subsequent sales performance, whereas performance-avoid goal orientation negatively predicted sales performance. The SR tactics functioned as mediating variables between learning and performance-prove goal orientations and performance. Social competence and proactive behavior directly and positively predicted sales performance, and emotional control negatively predicted performance.

Adult↗