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PubMed1997

Aging of the population in Japan and its implications to the other Asian countries.

"The speed at which Japan's population is aging is mainly a result of its rapid economic development, which is common to many other East Asian countries. Two aspects of the aging of the population are an increasing share of the elderly and a declining labor force. The larger the number of elderly, the more the transfer of income between generations, and the fiscal burden rises. The shrinking workforce will lower the economic growth directly, and indirectly through the falling saving ratio. However, the negative impacts from aging can largely be offset by stimulating participation of older persons in the labor force."

Adult↗
PubMed1980

Spatial patterns of age-sex structures in Costa Rica: a study in demographic modernization.

The relationship between economic development and demographic factors in Costa Rica is examined. "Specifically, the paper illustrates the evolution of spatial patterns in age-sex structures over three points in time for a single case study area." The authors suggest that there is order in the evolving patterns and that this order may be explained by the economic modernization process. Data are from the 1950, 1963, and 1973 censuses. Although some spatial order is indicated, the patterns are confused primarily by an increase in fertility that apparently occurred between 1950 and 1963.

Age Distribution↗
PubMed1993

Demographic change, international migration, and public education.

"This paper studies the impact of demographic change and international migration on economic development and the education sector. We employ a simple simulation model for tracing the impact of international migration on the educational and economic system, under alternative assumptions on the education background and adaptation costs of migrants. An application to the case of the Netherlands shows that international migration of whatever (realistic) level will not be able to prevent strong population aging during the period 2010-2035. Given the current below-average educational and productive profile of the immigrant population in the Netherlands, increased migration will only make matters worse."

Acculturation↗
PubMed2005

Effluent standards for developing countries: combining the technology- and water quality-based approach.

It is a challenge for developing countries to realize socio-economical development without impairing water resources in an unacceptable way. A possible means for controlling water pollution is through defining, applying and enforcing effluent standards for wastewater discharges. However, in many developing countries the definition of effluent standards is still poor. They are either too stringent because they are based on standards from developed countries, or too relaxed and therefore they do not guarantee the safe intended uses of water. In order to define an approach for setting effluent standards that suits the needs and means of developing counties, water quality management practices in the USA, the EU, the New Independent States (NIS) and the Philippines were analyzed and compared. Four criteria (protection of the environment, technical viability, economic feasibility and institutional capacity requirements) were used to assess the suitability of these practices for developing countries. It is concluded that a combined approach that is based on best available technology not entailing excessive costs and environmental quality standards is the best way to define effluent standards that restrict water pollution against affordable costs.

Conservation of Natural Resources↗
PubMed1993

The worldwide magnitude of protein-energy malnutrition: an overview from the WHO Global Database on Child Growth.

Using the WHO Global Database on Child Growth, which covers 87% of the total population of under-5-year-olds in developing countries, we describe the worldwide distribution of protein-energy malnutrition, based on nationally representative cross-sectional data gathered between 1980 and 1992 in 79 developing countries in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and Oceania. The findings confirm that more than a third of the world's children are affected. For all the indicators (wasting, stunting, and underweight) the most favourable situation--low or moderate prevalences--occurs in Latin America; in Asia most countries have high or very high prevalences; and in Africa a combination of both these circumstances is found. A total 80% of the children affected live in Asia--mainly in southern Asia--15% in Africa, and 5% in Latin America. Approximately, 43% of children (230 million) in developing countries are stunted. Efforts to accelerate significantly economic development will be unsuccessful until optimal child growth and development are ensured for the majority.

Africa↗
PubMed1979

Nutrition and national development: the case of Chile.

This study is an historical analysis of food consumption and nutrition in Chile emphasizing the influence of political and economic factors on nutritional standards. It attempts to document and explain the persistence of malnutrition as a widespread social problem in Chile even as the country achieved a relatively advanced state of economic development and boasted an unusually progressive record of social legislation. The major findings of the study were: (a) Chile's pattern of development, social reform efforts notwithstanding, consistently discriminated against low-income groups, and (b) this discrimination perpetuated low standards of nutrition and low levels of food consumption among the country's poor and undermined the effectiveness of specific measures to alleviate malnutrition.

Agriculture↗
PubMed1987

[America Manna: women and migration in a global perspective].

This article considers the role of migrant women in light of the contribution to the demographic, social, and economic development of the receiving country. The high level of development for these areas has always been fostered by the ready availability of a salaried work force and its easy replacement. The cost of labor in the country of origin is different from that in the receiving country and thus often results in a parallel work force and fosters forms of discrimination. With the crisis of the "rotation" model in the 1970s, the cost of replacing the work force has been concentrated in the countries of origin while official politics, which limited the immigration of family members, placed a greater burden on the women and the children of the emigrants, and increased the danger of their gradual marginalization.

Demography↗
PubMed2003

Improving access to capital for health care infrastructure: the experience of the Southern Rural Access Program's revolving loan fund.

Lack of access to affordable capital is a formidable barrier that compromises rural health care infrastructure development in poor rural areas. Commercial lending institutions are often limited in their ability to respond to those needs due to traditional lending criteria: creditworthiness, equity, management ability, experiences, and cash flow or profits. In the Southern Rural Access Program, a development model more frequently used in other sectors has been successfully applied to health care to help clear these hurdles. This paper describes the 5 operational loan funds in Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina, and West Virginia receiving support from the Southern Rural Access Program. Two models of loan funds have evolved: those led by health agencies and those led by community development finance institutions whose mission is rural economic development. This paper outlines major distinctive features of these 2 approaches and describes major implementation challenges these loan funds face. Key accomplishments are high-lighted, including the ability to leverage additional resources from state, federal, philanthropic, and private sources through these funds. These loan fund programs provide models for other states interested in improving access to capital to help build the rural health care infrastructure while making health care more economically viable through integration with other community development initiatives.

Capital Financing↗
PubMed1984

Reformulating the development theory of welfare.

Industrialization, technological change and overall economic development are often cited as important factors in the development of welfare states. This article examines the importance of cycles in economic activity and cycles in technological innovation to enhancing our understanding of welfare. The history of technological change in health-care services is used to illustrate the argument.

Diffusion of Innovation↗
PubMed1996

Asia on the move: research challenges for population geography.

This paper "summarises some of the major changes which have occurred in international migration to, from, and within Asia in the last two decades....A number of theoretical challenges are put forward regarding the complex interrelationships between international population movements, economic development and social change. The employment of systems approaches, neoclassical economic theory, social networks and institutional approaches, and the potential role of population geography in developing a more comprehensive explanation of the changing dynamics of international migration in the region, are discussed. Also considered are the gender dimension in migration, remittance flows and their consequences, and policy issues."

Asia↗
PubMed2002

The role of multilateral institutions.

In line with its mission of alleviating poverty through support for environmentally and socially sustainable economic development, The World Bank (along with some other multilateral development banks) is working to help developing countries capture a share of the emerging global market in greenhouse-gas-emissions reductions ('carbon trading'). Under the Kyoto Protocol of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Joint Implementation instrument and the Clean Development Mechanism now provide an opening for substantial international resource transfers and potential for supporting sustainable development through the transfer of cleaner technologies or sustainable forestry and agro-forestry practices. For example, carbon sequestration represents a non-extractive non-consumptive sustainable use of living natural resources that can be incorporated within a multiple-use 'integrated ecosystem management' approach. The World Bank initiated the Prototype Carbon Fund (PCF) in April 2000, to help spur the development of a global carbon market and to 'learn by doing' how to use carbon-purchase transactions across a range of energy-sector technologies (and some forestry applications) to achieve environmentally credible and cost-effective emissions reductions that benefit developing countries and economies in transition. Building on the success of the PCF ($145 million raised from public and private-sector investors), The World Bank expects to launch two new funds in 2002: the Biocarbon Fund and the Community Development Carbon Fund. These funds will target synergies between carbon markets and objectives such as biodiversity conservation, combating desertification and small-scale community-driven development. Experience from the PCF shows that developing countries can have a comparative advantage in supplying this global market, as emissions reductions can be achieved in developing countries in the range of $3-$5 per ton of CO(2) equivalent, compared with a marginal abatement cost of $10-$15 per ton of CO(2) equivalent in most countries within the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. However, realizing this economic potential over the next decade, and targeting the market to the rural poor, will require substantial assistance with project development and government legal and institutional capacity building. Specific needs include raising awareness of the potential of carbon markets at all levels (particularly in energy and land-use sectors), clarifying property rights, particularly in the case of communally held land and resources, ensuring the existence of an attractive investment climate, eliminating policies that create perverse incentives and constraints, and mitigating logistical, political and 'reputational' risks that could deter private-sector investors. It will also be necessary to find ways to reconcile the short-term needs of the rural poor and the typically long-term revenue stream associated with carbon sequestration.

Air Pollution↗
PubMed1987

Cuba and the Philippines: contrasting cases in world-system analysis.

Cuba and the Philippines are countries with broad similarities in historical background yet sharp divergences in political economic developments and relations to the capitalist world-system in recent times. U.S. economic and political interests dominated both countries during the first half of the 20th century. The changes generated by the Cuban revolution resulted in the end of U.S. power in Cuba in 1959. The Philippines, however, remain profoundly dependent on the United States. The approach taken in this article contrasts these countries, asking what the results of their divergent paths are in terms of health and health services. The ability of Cuba and the Philippines to support the primary health care (PHC) approach by fostering socioeconomic justice, authentic citizen participation, and a regionalized health system is examined. It is clear that the last 25 years of socialist-oriented development in Cuba reversed the negative effects of the previous market economy by providing improved social and health services. The success of the political economy and the fully regionalized health system, supportive of the PHC approach in Cuba, is reflected in the high-level health status of the people. In contrast, poverty, gross social and economic inequities, high prevalence of infectious disease, and inaccessible, inadequate, and uncoordinated health services persist in the Philippines after some 85 years of international and national capitalist development. The poor health status of the Philippine people is a direct reflection of this underdeveloped system.

Community Participation↗
PubMed1997

Health and rural-to-urban migration in Thailand. The Population and Community Development Association's experience in rural development.

The Population and Community Development Association (PDA), a non-governmental organisation, has designed and implemented a new model of rural economic development in which health is considered to be the cornerstone of all development strategies. By attacking migration as the root cause of current threats to the population's health, PDA's Thai Business Initiative in Rural Development program provides economic opportunities to villagers in the poorest areas of the country. This structural approach to health enhancement includes specific components to address primary health care, family planning, and HIV/AIDS prevention, education and care.

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome↗
PubMed1992

Theoretical perspectives for explaining infant mortality in the third world.

The authors analyze differentials in infant mortality rates in developing countries and attempt to go beyond the usual economic interpretations of these differences and identify some of the relevant social and political factors affecting infant mortality. In particular, they apply "a 'political economy of health' perspective to infant mortality and seek to account for discrepancies between economic progress and progress against infant mortality. [The paper] traces out a four-fold comparison--between countries with high/low economic development and countries with high/low infant mortality--for testing hypotheses in the political economy of health."

Demography↗
PubMed1980

Migration and the development of multiregional economic systems.

"This paper outlines a model which simultaneously characterizes economically induced migration and discretionary migration [in the United States]. The model is articulated for a multiregional system, and an attempt is made to characterize simultaneously demographic and economic change."

Americas↗
PubMed1984

The Dominican counterexample to Cuba: the American path to development.

The Dominican Republic provides a striking example of the potential for economic development following active military and economic intervention by the United States. A moment of potential for reforms necessitated by the Trujillo era appeared briefly and was lost in the short period of the presidency of Juan Bosch. A detailed study of the circumstances behind the American marine action that restored order, and prevented the return of Bosch, tells us much about U.S. policy in Latin America. In contradistinction to media releases suggesting a potential communist threat, the study shows a level of corporate and intelligence community involvement in the country that precludes reforms essential to the well being of the Dominican people.

Commerce↗
PubMed1992

Demographic findings relevant for health care planning and evaluation collected through a malaria control project in the Kivu Mountains, Zaire.

Population studies were conducted in the margin of a community based malaria control programme in the Katana Health zone, in the Eastern part of Zaire. The reported findings are based on prospective registration of vital events from March 1986 through February 1987. At mid term 28.083 people were covered. The age and sex structure of the population was typical for tropical Africa, apart from an excess of males to females after the age of 64. The mean age at marriage was 21.2 years for women and 25.6 years for men. 89% of women did not complete a single year of formal education. The crude fertility rate was 250/1000 and total fertility 8.3 children. The infant mortality rate and the child mortality quotients attained 130/1000 and 183/1000 respectively. The crude death rate was 23 per 1000 and the natural population growth rate 31/1000. Due to a net out-migration of 28/1000 the zone's population remained, however, virtually stable. The latter observation questions the purported role of demographic pressure as a key determinant of the region's slow socio-economic development. The other findings provide valuable baseline and background information for planning and evaluating health-related activities.

Adolescent↗