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PubMed1996

Role of taste aversion in calcium channel inhibitor-induced suppression of saccharin and alcohol drinking in rats.

L-type calcium (Ca2+) channel inhibitors suppress drinking of highly preferred solutions of simple carbohydrates, saccharin, or alcohol. The present study was designed to examine whether this decrease in drinking behavior can be explained by the development of consummatory aversion. In the first experiment, the propensity of Ca2+ channel inhibitors to induce conditioned taste aversion (CTA) to 0.1% saccharin was examined using two saccharin/drug injection pairings in saccharin-naive rats. We compared three chemically different drugs: diltiazem, isradipine, and nicardipine. A dose-dependent CTA was observed after both conditioning sessions for all three drugs tested. Interestingly, the lowest dose of nicardipine (i.e., 1.25 mumol/kg), significantly increased saccharin intake. A nonsignificant trend to increase saccharin intake was also observed with the lowest dose of isradipine. We then examined whether nicardipine could similarly induce CTA to a novel taste of alcohol (6%, v/v). The drug failed to produce a significant effect. In the third experiment, we found that nicardipine did not induce CTA (or preference) if the saccharin taste was familar to rats. In the final experiment, the interaction of nicardipine (1.25 and 2.5 mumol/kg) with the ethanol (1.5 g/kg)-induced CTA to saccharin was investigated. The higher dose of nicardipine potentiated the aversive effect of ethanol in the test. Overall, the present results suggest that CTA does not play a major role in Ca2+ channel inhibitor-induced suppression of drinking behavior.

Alcohol Drinking↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Endogenous opiates: 1982.

This article is the fifth installment in an annual series of reviews of successive year's research dealing with the endogenous opiate peptides. Due to the continuing massive increase in the number of studies in this field, it has become impossible to continue comprehensive reviews of all aspects of this work. As a result we have decided that beginning this year the coverage will be abbreviated to emphasize non-analgesic and behavioral work. The specific areas discussed include stress, tolerance and dependence, consummatory responses, alcohol consumption, schizophrenia and emotional disorders, learning and memory, cardiovascular responses, respiratory effects, thermoregulatory effects, neurological deficits and other disorders, activity, and other, miscellaneous behaviors. As in previous years, we have attempted a relatively comprehensive review of the subjects covered only for the previous year and have not made an attempt to evaluate their contributions relative to those of past years.

Alcohol Drinking↗
PubMed2000

Segmental control of midbody peristalsis during the consummatory phase of feeding in the medicinal leech, Hirudo medicinalis.

The ingestive behavior of the medicinal leech includes peristalsis-like movements of the midbody that are organized into both rostral-to-caudal and caudal-to-rostral waves (C. M. Lent, K. H. Fliegner, E. Freedman, & M. H. Dickenson, 1988). The neuronal control of this behavior is unknown. Using surgical manipulations and electromyograms, the authors show that (a) the head and tail ganglia are not necessary for this behavior; (b) the circuit is distributed, with components reiterated along the length of the leech; (c) excitatory signals transmitted from rostral segments via the nerve cord can initiate peristalsis in "empty" caudal segments; (d) inhibitory signals from caudal segments limit the frequency of peristalsis; and (e) stretch of the gut and/or body wall is sufficient to produce peristalsis in the absence of heat or chemical cues. These results are compared with peristalsis in the digestive tract of mammals. The leech may be a good model for studying peristalsis-like behaviors at the cellular level.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Mind versus metabolism in the control of food intake and energy balance.

In a restrictive food environment, the homeostatic control system regulates body weight and adiposity with remarkable precision. However, this regulation appears to break down in many genetically predisposed individuals under conditions prevailing in the modern era characterized by a sedentary lifestyle and easy availability of large portions of palatable and calorically dense food. The nervous system is the main interface by which food-related environmental factors influence the regulatory process. Thus, focusing on the neural systems located in the telencephalon dealing with environmental factors, and on their connections with the homeostatic regulatory system distributed mainly in the hypothalamus and brainstem, should result in new drug targets and behavioral strategies for prevention and therapy. The structures providing this interface with the environment are involved in the initiation, procurement, and appetitive phases of ingestive behavior and associative learning before, during, and after the consummatory phase. It is thought that learned and unlearned representations of foods and food cues in the orbitofrontal and other cortical areas are filtered for affective/emotional value in the amygdala and for motivational salience in the nucleus accumbens/ventral striatum to initiate goal-directed motor programs. Internal state signals generated by the metabolic sensing mechanisms in the hypothalamus interact with each of these corticolimbic structures through reciprocal connections. While many projections from the hypothalamus contain the various "feeding peptides," the neurochemistry of projections to the hypothalamus has not been well characterized.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Measuring ethanol-seeking behavior: the effect of using repeated extinction trials.

The development of a reliable measure of the level of ethanol-seeking behavior in an animal model is important to understanding the concept of craving. However, most existing models do not allow for the separation of the behavior associated with obtaining ethanol from that involved in consumption of ethanol. In this study, we determined the ability of repeated, single-session extinction tests in an appetitive and consummatory procedure of ethanol self-administration to assess the level of seeking behavior. The findings indicated that there were no major effects of previous extinction trials on later trials, when there were at least four reinforced sessions between tests. During reinforced sessions, the rats were consuming an average of 0.80 g of ethanol per kilogram of body weight in less than 20 min from a sipper tube. In addition, the amount of extinction responding was found to be similar to a previous measure of the appetitive strength of ethanol by using a breakpoint procedure. This method of repeated extinction tests seems to be valuable for examining the effects of pharmacological treatments that might alter ethanol seeking.

Alcohol Drinking↗
PubMed1997

The structural organization of connections between hypothalamus and cerebral cortex.

Motivated behavior requires coordinated somatic, autonomic, and endocrine responses, and may be divided into initiation, procurement, and consummatory phases (Swanson, L.W. and Mogenson, G.J., Neural mechanisms for the functional coupling of autonomic, endocrine and somatomotor responses in adaptative behavior, Brain Res. Rev., 3 (1981) 1-34). Obviously, such behavior may involve the entire central nervous system, although it is important to identify circuitry or systems that mediate the behavior directed toward specific goal objects. This problem has recently been clarified by the identification of hypothalamic subsystems important for the execution of instinctive behaviors related to ingestion, reproduction, and defense. These subsystems are modulated by sensory (reflex), central control (e.g., circadian), and voluntary (cortical) inputs. The latter are dominated by inputs from the ventral temporal lobe and medial prefrontal region, which are both direct and via associated parts of the basal nuclei (ganglia). Hypothalamic output is characterized by descending projections to brainstem and spinal motor systems, and by projections back to the cerebral cortex, which are both direct and via a continuous rostromedial part of the dorsal thalamus. This thalamic region includes the anterior, medial, and midline groups, which in turn innervate a continuous ring of cortex that includes the hippocampal formation and the cingulate, prefrontal, and insular regions. Parts of this thalamic region also innervate the ventral striatum, which receives a massive input from the cortical rings as well.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

The role of the gustatory thalamus in taste-guided behavior.

Gustatory thalamus is the functional name for the parvicellular region of the ventroposteromedial nucleus of the thalamus. It is the penultimate nucleus in the thalamocortical pathway of the central gustatory system. Early research encouraged the view that the gustatory thalamus was important for taste detection and recognition. Consistent with this analysis, lesions of the area were found to induce profound deficits of innate taste preferences and aversions, salt appetite, and conditioned taste aversions (CTAs). More recent research using discrete lesions placed with electrophysiological guidance has, however, demonstrated that these deficits were due to damage to structures outside of, rather than within, the boundaries of the gustatory thalamus. In fact, the new data show that the gustatory thalamus is not essential for taste detection, sodium appetite, or CTA learning, but is critical for the preparatory (i.e. food-seeking) rather than the consummatory (i.e. food-eating) aspects of taste-guided behavior.

Animals↗
PubMed1989

Mechanisms of conditioned meal initiation.

Three experiments investigate behavioral and biological mechanisms of meal initiation controlled by learning. Animals were classically conditioned to initiate a meal in response to a conditioned stimulus paired with food. We demonstrate that: a) aversion to the signalled food markedly reduces consumption but has no effect on eating-related behaviors anticipatory to ingestion; b) naloxone reduces the amount eaten but has no impact on food-anticipatory behaviors; c) dopamine antagonism attenuates food-anticipatory behaviors without influencing amount eaten, and d) satiety signals arising from food in the gut reduce both food-anticipatory behaviors and amount eaten. These results demonstrate that anticipatory (appetitive) and consummatory components of meal initiation can be dissociated and are controlled by different biological mechanisms. Cues conditioned to food elicit eating by selectively activating appetitive systems. The implications of the appetitive/consummatory distinction for contemporary theories of meal initiation are discussed.

Animals↗
PubMed1986

Chlordiazepoxide directly enhances positive ingestive reactions in rats.

Benzodiazepines such as chlordiazepoxide (CDP) promote feeding in a number of species. This effect has been interpreted generally to be an indirect consequence of benzodiazepine anti-anxiety action, although some have questioned whether it might not reflect instead a direct action upon the reinforcing properties of foods. The present study employed a behavioral measure that can discriminate between these possibilities: palatability-dependent consummatory actions elicited in rats by tastes. The results suggest that chlordiazepoxide enhances the positive palatability of tastes selectively while having little or no effect on aversive palatability. The net effect is to make tastes more reinforcing following CDP administration.

Animals↗
PubMed1987

Natural syntax rules control action sequence of rats.

Knowledge of the principles by which behavioral sequences are generated is essential to progress in our understanding of neural mechanisms. We describe here a set of natural principles or syntax rules that organize the components of grooming and feeding. The behavioral stream of facial grooming or of taste-elicited ingestive/aversive consummatory actions of rats can be viewed as a long series of individual movements linked together to form functional sequences. In order to ascertain the syntax rules that determine how these actions are linked together, many thousands of spontaneous grooming and elicited ingestive/aversive actions were videotaped and scored with a microcomputer. Techniques of information analysis of sequential stereotypy, tabulation of the sequential transitions between single actions and between action groups, and visual inspection for linear action chains, were employed to expose underlying rules of behavioral sequencing. These analyses revealed two global patterns: action perserveration and transitional reciprocation between sequential pairs and triplets, which together account for approximately 75% of all sequential transitions during grooming and ingestion/aversion. The pattern of transitional reciprocation could be divided further into patterns of alternation between individual actions on the one hand, and between perseverating bouts of actions on the other. Global syntax rules applied equally to actions emitted during grooming or during taste-elicited ingestion/aversion. In addition, a specific rule of linear chaining was found to apply only to facial grooming. These natural rules of action syntax provide insight into the sequential structure of behavior, and lend themselves well to analyses of neural mechanisms.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Central neurotensin receptor activation produces differential behavioral responses in Fischer and Lewis rats.

RATIONALE: Lewis (LEW) and Fischer (F344) rats exhibit marked differences in appetitive and consummatory responses to numerous drugs, including psychostimulants. Neurotensin (NT) produces psychostimulant-like actions, which sensitize with repeated exposure, and neuroleptic-like actions; effects that are dependent on the site of microinjection. The aim of the present experiments was to assess the behavioral sensitivity of these two strains of rats to NT receptor activation. METHODS: In expt 1, locomotor activity was assessed on alternate days following an ICV injection of NT, [ d-Tyr(11)]neurotensin ( d-NT; 18 nmol/10 microl), or vehicle (days 1, 3, 5, and 7) in independent groups of LEW and F344 rats. On day 14, locomotor activity was assessed in all rats following an injection of d-amphetamine (1 mg/kg, IP). In expt 2, activity was assessed following injection into the ventral tegmental area of NT, or d-NT, (2.5 microg/hemisphere) or into the nucleus accumbens (2.5 and 5.0 microg/hemisphere). RESULTS. Repeated ICV injections of NT, or d-NT, produced differential behavioral effects in the two strains of rats on days 1-7; activity was initially suppressed in LEW, but less so in F344 rats, following NT. In F344, but not in LEW rats, d-NT produced a significant increase in activity. Neurotensin and d-NT sensitized LEW rats to amphetamine-induced ambulatory and non-ambulatory activity. Except for vertical activity, this effect was weaker or in the opposite direction in F344 rats. When injected into the ventral tegmental area, NT produced an increase in locomotor activity in both strains, an effect that was greater in F344 than LEW rats with d-NT. In the nucleus accumbens, NT marginally decreased activity in both strains, while d-NT produced a significant increase in F344 but not in LEW rats. CONCLUSIONS: These results provide empirical evidence that endogenous NT neurotransmission within limbic circuitry differs in F344 and LEW rats.

Amphetamine↗
PubMed1977

Behavioral effects of LSD in the cat: proposal of an animal behavior model for studying the actions of hallucinogenic drugs.

In the course of examining the complete dose-response relationship for the behavioral effects of LSD in the cat, we discovered that, in addition to large increases in investigatory and hallucinatory-like responses, two behaviors, not previously reported, are emitted with a high probability under LSD. Beginning from a baseline of essentially zero in saline-treated animals, limb flicks and abortive grooming increase in frequency in direct relation to the dose of LSD administered (2.5, 10, 25 and 50 microgram/kg i.p.) and then decrease at higher doses (100 and 200 microgram/kg). Limb flicks are a species-specific behavior seen in normal cats almost exclusively in response to the presence of a foreign substance, such as water, on the hindpaw or forepaw. In abortive grooming, the cat orients to the body surfaces as if to groom but does not emit the consummatory grooming response (bite, lick or scratch), or emits the response in midair. These behaviors can serve as an animal behavior model for the actions of LSD and related hallucinogens in humans. The specificity of these behavioral changes is indicated by the fact that they are never seen in response to other classes of psychoactive drugs such as D-amphetamine, atropine, caffeine, and cholorpheniramine. They are, however, elicited by compounds such as psilocybin which are structurally and functionally related to LSD. The validity of the model is based on evidence indicating that it is: specific to hallucinogens, dose dependent, observed in a dose range effective in humans, parallels the major parameters of the actions of LSD in humans (see following paper), sensitive, robust, reliable, quantifiable and easy to score.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Frustration and sexual behavior in male rats.

Frustration is an emotional state produced by the surprising omission in quantity and/or quality of an appetitive reinforcer. The aversive properties of stressors, such as electric shocks, produce responses similar to those elicited by a state of frustration. In this set of three experiments, we assessed the effects of water immersion (WIM, in Experiment 1)--that is, a physical stressor--and first (in Experiments 1 and 2) and second trials of a consummatory extinction (cE; i.e., a surprising reward omission; in Experiment 3) on the sexual behavior of male rats, as compared with nonstressed animals. The results showed a sexual deficit in the animals subjected to either WIM or cE, relative to control subjects, although these experimental conditions differed in the component of the male sexual response that was affected. The present results accord with the fear = frustration hypothesis, and with Amsel's frustration theory.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Effects of alcohol deprivation on alcohol consumption using a sipper-tube procedure.

BACKGROUND: When rats with prior experience drinking ethanol solutions are deprived of ethanol for various time periods, a transitory increase in alcohol consumption is observed when ethanol solutions are again made available. This has been termed the alcohol deprivation effect (ADE). The ADE has been observed in limited-access operant procedures in which small dippers of ethanol are presented following completion of a lever press requirement. However, it has not been determined if the effect occurs in an operant model of ethanol self-administration that separates the ethanol-seeking responding from the consummatory drinking (the sipper procedure). METHODS: Rats were initiated to drink ethanol from a sipper tube using the sucrose-substitution procedure. Once initiated, the rats had to make 30 lever presses to gain access to a sipper-tube containing the ethanol solution for 20 min. The effects of 2-3 days, 7 days, and 14 days of ethanol deprivation were examined on ethanol consumption and extinction responding (seeking response). RESULTS: There were no effects of deprivation on intake at any deprivation period examined. Contrary to expectations, the alcohol-seeking response as measured by extinction responding was decreased after 7 and 14 days of deprivation. CONCLUSIONS: The data from this study and others using the limited access operant procedures suggest that the ADE may be more related to consummatory control (i.e., loss of control) and not to ethanol-seeking behaviors (i.e., craving).

Alcohol Drinking↗
PubMed2002

Reversal of ethanol-seeking behavior by D1 and D2 antagonists in an animal model of relapse: differences in antagonist potency in previously ethanol-dependent versus nondependent rats.

Mesocorticolimbic dopamine (DA) transmission has been implicated in the consummatory and, more recently, the incentive-motivational aspect of ethanol's actions. The purpose of this study was to test whether ethanol-seeking behavior induced by an ethanol-associated contextual stimulus is sensitive to antagonism of DA transmission. Male Wistar rats were trained to orally self-administer 10% ethanol and to associate olfactory discriminative stimuli with the availability of ethanol (S(+)) versus nonreward (S(-)). Ethanol-reinforced operant responding then was extinguished by withholding ethanol and the associated S(+). After reaching a predetermined extinction criterion, reinstatement tests were conducted in which the animals were presented noncontingently with only the S(+) or S(-). Exposure to the S(+) but not the S(-) reinstated responding at the previously active lever. The D1 antagonist R(+)-7-chloro-8-hydroxy-3-methyl-1-phenyl-2,3,4,5-tetrahydro-1H-3-benzazepine hydrochloride (SCH23390; 5, 10, 50 microg/kg s.c.) and the D2 antagonist eticlopride (5, 10, 50 microg/kg s.c.) dose dependently decreased the number of S(+)-induced responses and increased response latency. During a second test, conducted in the same rats, 3 weeks after withdrawal from a 12-day ethanol vapor inhalation procedure, the response-reinstating efficacy of the S(+) remained unaltered. However, the potency of both DA antagonists to inhibit the S(+)-induced drug-seeking response was significantly increased. The results confirm that ethanol-related contextual stimuli reliably elicit drug-seeking behavior and suggest that this effect requires activation of DA neurotransmission. The results also indicate that chronic ethanol exposure produces changes in D1 and D2 receptor function that lead to enhanced sensitivity to the behavioral effects of antagonists for these receptors.

Administration, Inhalation↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Endogenous opiates: 1984.

This paper is the seventh in an annual series of reviews of research involving the endogenous opiate peptides, each installment being restricted to work published during the previous year. As in the past three years, the review this year is limited to non-analgesic and behavioral studies of the opiate peptides. The specific topics this year include: stress, tolerance and dependence, consummatory responses, gastric and renal activity, alcohol, mental illness, learning and memory, cardiovascular responses, respiratory effects, thermoregulation, seizures and neurological disorders, activity, and miscellaneous other topics.

Alcohol Drinking↗
PubMed2002

Separate measures of ethanol seeking and drinking in the rat: effects of remoxipride.

Remoxipride, a dopamine D(2) antagonist, decreases responding that results in the presentation of small amounts (approximately 0.1 ml) of ethanol in limited-access paradigms. This type of operant response is a combined appetitive/consummatory response that is differentially affected by changing stimulus properties of consumed ethanol (i.e., taste, pharmacology) over the course of the session. In the present experimental design, ethanol-directed appetitive and consummatory responses were procedurally separated to investigate the specific effects of remoxipride on these distinct behaviors. Male Long-Evans rats were trained to make a series of lever-press responses once each day that resulted in access to a sipper tube spout containing 10% ethanol for 20 min. Three doses of remoxipride were tested: 5.0, 10.0, and 15.0 mg/kg (-30 min, i.p.). In Experiment 1, a response requirement of 20 was used, and both reinforced and nonreinforced sessions were examined. In nonreinforced sessions, subjects were permitted to lever press for 20 min, after which the session ended without sipper tube presentation. These sessions were conducted to remove the possibility that limiting responding might obscure a drug effect on the seeking response. In Experiment 2, a low response requirement (4) was used to investigate the effects of remoxipride on ethanol intake. Average baseline ethanol intake (Experiment 1) was 0.69 g/kg, with blood ethanol concentrations at the end of the session at 64 mg%. At all doses tested, remoxipride had no effect on the measures of ethanol consumption (e.g., total intake, lick latency, lick rate) in either experiment. However, remoxipride dose dependently decreased the number of appetitive responses made, while having no effect on response latency or rate, during both reinforced and nonreinforced sessions in Experiment 1. In these experiments, the systemic antagonism of the dopamine D(2) receptor decreased ethanol seeking without causing a general impairment of motor function. The procedural separation of seeking and intake responses revealed that appetitive responding was more sensitive than consummatory responding to remoxipride treatment.

Alcohol Drinking↗