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PubMed2004

Prevalence and clonal diversity of Campylobacter jejuni from dairy farms and urban sources.

AIM: To investigate the role of free-living animals such as sparrows, rodents and flies as potential reservoirs of Campylobacter spp on a dairy farm, and to assess the genetic diversity among Campylobacter isolates from the farm and an urban source. METHODS: A total of 290 samples (bovine, passerine and rodent faeces, and whole flies) were collected from a large commercial dairy farm in the Manawatu district in New Zealand, and from faeces from urban sparrows in a nearby city. Other samples collected from the dairy farm included five from silage, two from aprons worn by workers during milking, two from workers' boots and two from water in troughs in a paddock. Isolates of thermophilic Campylobacter spp were identified morphologically and phenotypically and further characterised molecularly using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and the restriction enzyme SmaI. RESULTS: Campylobacter jejuni was the only Campylobacter species isolated from all samples. The highest prevalence was found in faeces from dairy cows (54%), followed by faeces from sparrows from the urban area (40%) and the farm (38%), and from rodents (11%) and whole flies (9%). Other samples from the farm environment such as silage, trough water, and workers' aprons and boots were also positive for C. jejuni. Of the 22 restriction patterns obtained, seven were common to more than one source. CONCLUSIONS: Cattle, sparrows, rodents and flies are potential reservoirs of C. jejuni on dairy farms. Identical clones of C. jejuni carried by cattle, sparrows, flies and rodents probably indicate a common source of infection. The high level of asymptomatic carriage of C. jejuni by healthy dairy cows could be sufficient to maintain infections within the dairy farm surroundings via environmental contamination.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2005

Differential responses of the photoperiodic clock in two passerine birds possessing a strongly self-sustained circadian system.

To investigate whether the photoperiodic clocks of species possessing strongly self-sustaining circadian clocks share identical features, we compared the full response cycle (initiation and termination of the response) in body mass and testes of the non-migratory house sparrow (Passer domesticus) with that of the migratory redheaded bunting (Emberiza bruniceps) under Nanda-Hamner experiments. Birds were exposed to a 36 h day (L:D=6:30 h), controls exposed to a 24 h day (L:D=6:18 h), for a period of 31 weeks. By week 18 of L:D=6:18 h, there was a small increase in body mass among sparrows, but not among buntings, and the testes of bunting did not grow, while those of sparrow grew slightly. The response to L:D=6:30 h is of particular interest. There was a rapid gain and subsequent loss in the body mass of bunting, but not of sparrows. Further, both species underwent a testicular cycle as if they were exposed to long days, but the response of sparrows was slower and hence delayed the attainment of peak testicular size. Such a differential response to exotic light cycles between these two photosensitive species, despite their similar circadian oscillatory properties (strong self-sustainment), could suggest a species-specific adaptation of the endogenous clock involved in photoperiodic regulation of avian seasonality.

Animal Migration↗
PubMed1993

Counting dead birds: examination of methods.

We studied three methods (line transect, circular quadrat, complete count) for estimating density of dead birds, using models of sparrows and meadowlarks placed at a density of 50 birds of each type/ha. Line transects with a 500-m search line were used in cultivated pasture and native prairie habitats. The number of birds found by individual searchers in line transects varied markedly, particularly, in pasture habitat. More birds were found, and birds were detected at a greater distance, in prairie than in pasture. More meadowlarks than sparrows were found in both habitats but the mean estimated density of meadowlarks was greater than that of sparrows only in prairie. The number of birds found during most searches was less than that suggested for estimating density accurately and longer search lines were required. Density estimates obtained using circular plots to sample 10% of the prairie area ranged from 20 to 80 birds/ha for meadowlarks and from 10 to 60 birds/ha for sparrows in prairie habitat. A complete search by 25 volunteers spaced at 4 m intervals detected 90% of meadowlarks but only 62% of sparrows in pasture habitat. Mean (SD) time for a single search, including searchers and recorders, was 3.0 (0.8), 1.5 (0.3), and 7.5 person-hours, for line transect, circular plot and complete search, respectively.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Feather and nest mites of two common resident birds in two ecologically different Egyptian governorates.

The study of the role played by birds in the distribution of various bacterial, viral and parasitic infections is increasingly from year to year, taking into consideration the flying ability of birds and their migration for food and vital processes. Two of the common Egyptian resident birds, house sparrow (Passer d. niloticus) and laughing dove (Streptopelia s. aegyptiaca) were chosen to study their mite fauna. The overall mite index was 4.74 on the house sparrow and 7.22 on the laughing dove. As to mites, a total of 31 species belonging to 23 genera, 17 families and 3 suborders were collected. The common mites on both types of birds were 22 species. Three species only on house sparrow, and six species only on laughing dove. The house sparrow served host for 25 mite species and the laughing dove served host for 28 mite species. The infestation rates of mites on house sparrow ranged between 1.11% to 23.33% and 0.21% to 34.54% in Sharkia and Qalyobia governorates respectively. For laughing dove, the mite infestation rates ranged between 0.82% to 50% and 3.45% to 55.17% for both governorates respectively. Some of the collected mites have medical and/or veterinary importance. The whole results were discussed.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Rapid behavioral response to corticosterone varies with photoperiod and dose.

The magnitude of the adrenocortical response to stress can be modulated by a variety of environmental and physiological factors, such as daylength and body condition. To determine the consequences of this modulation for the organism, one also needs to investigate behavioral sensitivity to glucocorticoids. We examined the behavioral response of Gambel's white-crowned sparrows (Zonotrichia leucophrys gambelii) to elevated glucocorticoids. Using a behavioral assay in which a rapid and transient dose of corticosterone (CORT: the avian glucocorticoid) rapidly increases perch hopping, we first investigated the photoperiodic regulation of this behavioral response. Intermediate levels of CORT ( approximately 24 ng/ml), which increased activity in sparrows exposed to a long-day (breeding) photoperiod, had no behavioral effect in sparrows exposed to a short-day (winter) photoperiod. Hence, the neural mechanisms which regulate the behavioral response to CORT appear to be less sensitive under a winter photoperiod. Using the same behavioral assay, we also measured a dose-response curve for CORT's effects on activity in sparrows exposed to the long-day photoperiod. Intermediate levels (24 and 40 ng/ml) increased activity to threefold background levels, whereas high physiological levels (65 and 97 ng/ml) had no effect. Given that the behavioral response does not increase linearly with CORT, we can no longer assume that modulation of the adrenocortical response to stress will result in linear changes in behavior.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Interspecies differences in mixed function oxidase activity in birds: Relationship between feeding habits, detoxication activities and organochlorine accumulation.

The relationship between feeding habits and interspecies differences in the detoxication ability of the mixed function oxidase (MFO) system was investigated in birds. The role of MFO (particularly aldrin epoxidase activity) in the detoxication/bioaccumulation of organochlorines was also investigated. Euriphagic (yellow-legged herring gull (Larus cachinnans), black-headed gull (Larus ridibundus), jackdaw (Corvus monedula), magpie (Pica pica) and stenophagic (cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo), coot (Fulica atra) and sparrow (Passer italiae)) species were collected in northern and central Italy. The following liver microsomal monooxygenase activities were measured: aldrin epoxidase, ethoxyresorufin dealkylation (EROD), benzyloxyresorufin dealkylation (BROD) and pentoxyresorufin dealkylation (PROD). NADPH-and NADH-cytochrome c reductase (NAD(P)H-CYT-CRED) and NADH-ferricyanide reductase (NADH-FERRIRED) activities were also measured in the liver microsomal fraction. Glutathione concentration (GSH) was measured in the liver cytosolic fraction. As a marker of liver damage gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GGTP) activity was assayed in the serum. The residues of organochlorines (HCB, pp'DDTs and PCBs) were determined in muscle samples. Omnivorous species, particularly the yellow-legged herring gull, had the highest aldrin epoxidase activities. In the yellow-legged herring gull the activity was approximately twice as high as in the jackdaw (p < 0.05), black-headed gull (p < 0.05) and coot (p < 0.05). Values five times lower were detected in the specialist fish-eater, the cormorant (p < 0.001). The lowest values of aldrin epoxidase activity were detected in the sparrow. Feeding habits were found to be related to evolutionary interspecies differences in MFO activity. A significant statistical correlation (r = 0.656) was found between the 'omnivore index' and MFO detoxication activity expressed as aldrin epoxidation. Organochlorines, and particularly PCBs, were higher in cormorants and yellow-legged herring gulls from a polluted lagoon than in the other species analysed (black-headed gull p < 0.01; sparrow p < 0.001; jackdaw p < 0.01; coot p < 0.001). Levels of pp'DDE were much higher in the cormorant and sparrow than in the other birds. Knowledge of the different species-specific detoxication abilities was found to be a useful tool for the identification of species potentially at risk in environments with high pollution by chlorinated hydrocarbons, or in general contaminants metabolized by the MFO system.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2003

Hypothalamic circadian organization in birds. II. Clock gene expression.

While the site of the major circadian pacemaker in mammals, the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus, is very well characterized, little is known about hypothalamic circadian organization in birds. This paper reviews recent findings on clock gene expression in the hypothalamus of several bird species focusing on circadian pPer2 expression in the house sparrow. In contrast to mammals, rhythmic Per2 gene expression in the house sparrow hypothalamus is not restricted to a single cell group but occurs in two distinct hypothalamic nuclei, the SCN and the lateral hypothalamic nucleus (LHN). The complex temporal and spatial distribution of pPer2 expression suggests a longitudinal compartmentalization of the SCN with period gene expression being initiated in the most rostral portion before lights on. In the lateral hypothalamus, phasing of pPer2-rhythmicity appeared delayed. In pinealectomized house sparrows, the overall circadian pPer2 expression pattern is maintained indicating that rhythmic pPer2 transcription in the SCN and LHN of the house sparrow are not driven by the pineal gland. Rather, they reflect the activity of autonomous hypothalamic circadian oscillators. Certain changes in peak expression levels and the expression phase, however, suggest that the pineal melatonin rhythm affects both the phase and the amplitude of rhythmic hypothalamic pPer2 expression.

Animals↗
PubMed1996

Spring migratory birds (Aves) extend the northern occurrence of blacklegged tick (Acari:Ixodidae).

Birds that had migrated northward across Lake Superior were captured upon reaching landfall at Thunder Cape (48 degrees 18' N, 88 degrees 56' W) at the southwestern tip of the Sibley Peninsula, northwestern Ontario, from 9 May to 9 June 1995. Twenty-one of 530 birds examined (6 of 55 species) had a total of 34 ticks; 1 blue jay, Cyanocitta cristata, had a northern fowl mite, Ornithonyssus sylviarum (Canestrini & Fanzago). Four blacklegged tick, Ixodes scapularis Say, larvae were found on an American robin, Turdus migratorius, and 2 on a chipping sparrow, Spizella passerina. This tick was not found on small mammals at Thunder Cape. Twenty-six larvae and a nymph of the rabbit tick, Haemaphysalis leporispalustris (Packard) were found on 1 American robin, 2 Swainson's thrushes, Catharus ustulatus, 1 white-throated sparrow, Zonotrichia albicollis, 1 common yellowthroat, Geothlypis trichas, 1 blue jay, and 12 chipping sparrows. A nymph of H. chordeilis (Packard) occurred on 1 chipping sparrow. Results demonstrate that northward migrating birds transport larvae of I. scapularis to areas of Ontario where the tick does not appear to have become established in small mammal populations. Spring migrants may be more involved in the dispersal of I. scapularis larvae than previously thought. Cooler temperatures and shorter seasons experienced in the more northerly, continental parts of the established distribution of this tick may extend the life cycle, resulting in a predominance of larvae rather than nymphs being acquired by northward-bound birds in early spring. Consequently, the role of spring migrating birds in the northward spread of I. scapularis and of borreliosis should be reevaluated.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Vocal tract function in birdsong production: experimental manipulation of beak movements.

Kinematic analyses have demonstrated that the extent to which a songbird's beak is open when singing correlates with the acoustic frequencies of the sounds produced, suggesting that beak movements function to modulate the acoustic properties of the vocal tract during song production. If motions of the beak are necessary for normal song production, then disrupting the ability of a bird to perform these movements should alter the acoustic properties of its song. We tested this prediction by comparing songs produced normally by white-throated sparrows and swamp sparrows with songs produced when the beak was temporarily immobilized. We also observed how temporarily loading the beak of canaries with extra mass affected vocal tract movements and song production. Disruption of vocal tract movements resulted in the predicted frequency-dependent amplitude changes in the songs of both white-throated sparrows and swamp sparrows. Canaries with mass added to their beak sang with their beak open more widely than normal and produced notes with greater harmonic content than those without weights. Both manipulations resulted in acoustic changes consistent with a model in which beak motions affect vocal tract resonances, thus supporting the hypothesis that dynamic vocal tract motions and post-production modulation of sound are necessary features of normal song production.

Acoustics↗
PubMed2003

Experimental infection of California birds with western equine encephalomyelitis and St. Louis encephalitis viruses.

A total of 27 bird species from the San Joaquin and Coachella valleys of California were inoculated subcutaneously with sympatric strains of western equine encephalomyelitis (WEE) and St. Louis encephalitis (SLE) viruses. Overall, 133 of 164 birds inoculated with WEE virus developed a viremia detected by plaque assay; significantly greater than 72 of 163 birds inoculated with SLE virus. Host competence was calculated as the average number of days that each avian species had a viremia > or = 2 log10 plaque-forming units per 0.1 ml, the threshold for infecting susceptible Culex tarsalis Coquillett, the primary vector of these viruses in California. Eleven of 20 species inoculated with WEE virus had a value > or = 1 and were considered to be competent hosts, whereas only six of 22 species inoculated with SLE virus had a value > or = 1. Overall, 133 of 164 birds inoculated with WEE virus and 105 of 163 inoculated with SLE virus produced antibody detectable by enzyme immunoassay and/or plaque reduction neutralization test. Six birds infected with WEE virus (one house finch, three mourning doves, one Brewer's sparrow, and one white-crowned sparrow) and nine birds infected with SLE virus (two house finches, three white-crowned sparrows, one song sparrow, two Western scrub-jays, and one orange crowned warbler) contained viral RNA detected by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction at necropsy > 6 wk postinoculation; infectious WEE and SLE viruses were only recovered from three mourning doves and an orange-crowned warbler, respectively, after blind passage in mosquito cells. Our study indicated that birds with elevated field antibody prevalence rates may not be the most competent hosts for encephalitis viruses and that relatively few birds developed chronic infections that could be important in virus persistence and dispersal.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Interspecific parasite exchange in a mixed colony of birds.

Studies of avian host-parasite interactions rarely include consequences of relationships among hosts for either the host or parasite species. In this study, we examine the ectoparasitic burden of adult and nestling European bee-eaters (Merops apiaster) and rock sparrows (Petronia petronia) in a mixed colony. We found that (1) each bird species had its own species of lice; (2) hematophagous mites parasitized both adults and nestlings of both bird species; (3) Carnus hemapterus, a common parasite of nestling bee-eaters, also infested rock sparrow nestlings, a species not previously described as a host for this dipteran; and (4) whereas C. hemapterus did not show high host specificity within the colony, the emergence of adult flies was synchronized with the start of hatching in bee-eater nests. We suggest that coexistence of these 2 bird species results in parasite exchange, bee-eaters obtaining mites from sparrows and sparrows becoming infested by C. hemapterus. Differences in the detrimental effects of parasite transfer for each host species may result in a process of apparent competition mediated by shared parasites. Interspecific parasite exchange is an important aspect of host-parasite relationships in mixed colonies, which requires further attention.

Animals↗
PubMed1980

Geographic variation among St. Louis encephalitis virus strains in the viremic responses of avian hosts.

We studied the capacity of 44 strains of St. Louis encephalitis (SLE) virus to induce viremia in an epidemiologically important wild avian host, the House Sparrow (Passer domesticus). Selected virus strains were also inoculated at varying doses into 3-week-old chicks. Viremic responses were analyzed in terms of the proportion of inoculated nestling and adult birds which became viremic, the mean duration and the mean peak titer of viremia. Infectivity of avian sera was determined by plaque assay in primary duck embryo cell cultures. The susceptibility of the House Sparrow to viremic infection with different SLE virus strains varied markedly. Nestling sparrows 6-10 days of age were generally more susceptible than adult birds. All virus strains isolated during Culex pipiens-borne epidemics in the eastern United States were highly viremogenic [viremia in 80% of birds with a mean duration of greater than or equal to 1.6 days in adults or greater than or equal to 2.7 days in nestlings and a mean peak titer of greater than or equal to 10(3.0) plaque-forming units (PFU)/ml in adults and 10(4.0) PFU/ml in nestlings]. All virus strains isolated from Culex tarsalis in the western United States, strains isolated from rodents in South America. and six of 16 strains isolated from various sources elsewhere in tropical America were partially or fully attenuated. A high degree of concordance was demonstrated between experimental viremia in sparrows, viremia in 3-week-old chicks, and neurovirulence for weanling mice. The epidemilogic significance of these findings is discussed.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Role of peridomestic birds in the transmission of St. Louis encephalitis virus in southern California.

In response to the 1984 St. Louis encephalitis (SLE) epidemic in the Los Angeles Basin of southern California (USA), an investigative program was initiated to evaluate the interactive components of the SLE virus transmission cycle. From 1987 through 1996 (10 yr), 52,589 birds were bled and their sera tested for SLE and western equine encephalomyelitis (WEE) virus antibodies by the hemagglutination inhibition (HAI) test. Eighty-three percent of the birds tested were house finches (Carpodacus mexicanus) (48.7%) and house sparrows (Passer domesticus) (34.6%); 1.1% of these birds were positive for SLE antibodies. Prevalence of WEE antibodies was negligible. The analysis of 5,481 sera from rock doves (Columbia livia) yielded 3.6% SLE positives and 0.4% WEE positives. Collection sites were maintained as study sites when identified as positive bird, mosquito, and SLE virus activity localities; others were abandoned. Serial serum samples from 7,749 banded house sparrows and 9,428 banded house finches from these selected sites demonstrated year-round SLE virus transmission. One location exhibited significant numbers of house finches undergoing annual SLE seroconversion and a number of seroconversion-reversion-reconversion sequences suggesting either viral reinfection from mosquitoes or recrudescence by latent virus. A proportion of both bird species also lived for longer than 1 yr, thus, increasing the possibility of virus carry-over from autumn to spring. Assessment of concurrently collected mosquitoes indicated no correlative association between mosquito populations and SLE seroconversion and reconversion. European house sparrows introduced in the 1800's may have provided a supplemental link to the existing SLE virus enzootic cycle involving endemic house finches. Meteorological factors are reviewed as possible important correlates of SLE epidemics. The house finch/house sparrow serosurveillance system is also evaluated for use as an "Early Warning" indicator of SLE virus activity.

Animals↗
PubMed1981

Monoamine oxidase in brain maturation: a histochemical study during posthatching development in altricial birds.

Monoamine oxidase was studied histochemically in the brain of three altricial birds, domestic pigeon house swift and house sparrow, during posthatching development. It was found that there was a steady increase in the activity of the enzyme in all areas of the brain of the three birds. The medulla and thalamus showed adult pattern of maturation by 15-20 days in sparrow while the optic lobes and cerebellum did so by 25 days in the former and 11 days in the latter. The cerebral hemispheres showed this by 25-30 days in pigeon and swift and 14 days in sparrow. The hind brain regions showed maximum activity followed by optic lobes, cortex, basal ganglia and cerebellum. The development of the enzyme activity coincided with myelination, in the different areas, as well as with the development of other mitochondrial enzymes. The study indicates that the maturation of the monoaminergic neurotransmitter systems occurs by 30 days in pigeon and swift, while it takes only about half that time i.e., 14 days, in sparrow.

Aging↗
PubMed1997

Seasonal changes in testosterone, neural attributes of song control nuclei, and song structure in wild songbirds.

Seasonal changes in the neural attributes of brain nuclei that control song in songbirds are among the most pronounced examples of naturally occurring plasticity in the adult brain of any vertebrate. The behavioral correlates of this seasonal neural plasticity have not been well characterized, particularly in songbird species that lack adult song learning. To address this question, we investigated the relationship between seasonal changes in gonadal steroids, song nuclei, and song behavior in adult male song sparrows (Melospiza melodia). At four times of the year, we measured plasma concentrations of testosterone, neural attributes of song nuclei, and several aspects of song structure in wild song sparrows of a nonmigratory population. We found seasonal changes in the song nuclei that were temporally correlated with changes in testosterone concentrations and with changes in song stereotypy. Male song sparrows sang songs that were more variable in structure in the fall, when testosterone concentrations were low and song nuclei were small, than in the spring, when testosterone concentrations were higher and song nuclei were larger. Despite seasonal changes in the song nuclei, the song sparrows continued to sing the same number of different song types, indicating that changes in the song nuclei were not correlated with changes in song repertoire size. These results suggest that song stereotypy, but not repertoire size, is a potential behavioral correlate of seasonal plasticity in the avian song control system.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Invasion of an exotic forb impacts reproductive success and site fidelity of a migratory songbird.

Although exotic plant invasions threaten natural systems worldwide, we know little about the specific ecological impacts of invaders, including the magnitude of effects and underlying mechanisms. Exotic plants are likely to impact higher trophic levels when they overrun native plant communities, affecting habitat quality for breeding songbirds by altering food availability and/or nest predation levels. We studied chipping sparrows (Spizella passerina) breeding in savannas that were either dominated by native vegetation or invaded by spotted knapweed (Centaurea maculosa), an exotic forb that substantially reduces diversity and abundance of native herbaceous plant species. Chipping sparrows primarily nest in trees but forage on the ground, consuming seeds and arthropods. We found that predation rates did not differ between nests at knapweed and native sites. However, initiation of first nests was delayed at knapweed versus native sites, an effect frequently associated with low food availability. Our seasonal fecundity model indicated that breeding delays could translate to diminished fecundity, including dramatic declines in the incidence of double brooding. Site fidelity of breeding adults was also substantially reduced in knapweed compared to native habitats, as measured by return rates and shifts in territory locations between years. Declines in reproductive success and site fidelity were greater for yearling versus older birds, and knapweed invasion appeared to exacerbate differences between age classes. In addition, grasshoppers, which represent an important prey resource, were substantially reduced in knapweed versus native habitats. Our results strongly suggest that knapweed invasion can impact chipping sparrow populations by reducing food availability. Food chain effects may be an important mechanism by which strong plant invaders impact songbirds and other consumers.

Animal Migration↗
PubMed2006

Testosterone effects on avian basal metabolic rate and aerobic performance: facts and artefacts.

We examined the effects of cage size and testosterone (T) levels on basal and peak metabolic rates (BMR and PMR, respectively) and on pectoral and leg muscle masses of male house sparrows (Passer domesticus). Birds were housed either in small birdcages or in flight aviaries for at least 2 weeks prior to the initial metabolic evaluations. They were then implanted with either empty or T-filled silastic capsules and remeasured 5-6 weeks later. Birds treated with single T implants achieved breeding levels (4-6 ng/mL) and one group given double implants reached 10 ng/mL. There was no effect of T on BMR or PMR in any group studied, but there was an effect of caging. Caged birds showed significant reductions in PMR over the course of captivity, whereas PMR in aviary-housed birds were indistinguishable from their free-living counterparts. Testosterone treatment significantly increased leg muscle mass in caged birds, but had no effect on muscle mass in aviary-housed sparrows. We conclude that testosterone has no direct effect on sparrow metabolic rate or muscle mass, but may interact with cage conditions to produce indirect changes to these variables.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Gait termination: a review of experimental methods and the effects of ageing and gait pathologies.

The study of human gait has expanded and diversified to the extent that it is now possible to identify a substantive literature concerning a variety of gait tasks, such as gait initiation [Halliday SE, Winter DA, Frank JS, Patla AE, Prince F. The initiation of gait in young, elderly, and Parkinson's disease subjects. Gait Posture 1998;8:8-14; Mickelborough J, van der Linden ML, Tallis RC, Ennos AR. Muscle activity during gait initiation in normal elderly people. Gait Posture 2004;19:50-57], stepping over and across obstacles [Patla AE, Prentice SD, Robinson C, Newfold J. Visual control of locomotion: strategies for changing direction and for going over obstacles. J Exp Psych 1991;17:603-34; Chen, HC, Ashton-Miller JA, Alexander NB, Schultz AB. Effect of age and available response time on ability to step over an obstacle. J Gerontol 1994;49:227-33; Sparrow WA, Shinkfield AJ, Chow S, Begg RK. Gait characteristics in stepping over obstacles. Hum Mov Sci 1996;15:605-22; Begg RK, Sparrow WA, Lythgo ND. Time-domain analysis of foot-ground reaction forces in negotiating obstacles. Gait Posture 1998;7:99-109; Patla AE, Rietdyk S. Visual control of limb trajectory over obstacles during locomotion: effect of obstacle height and width. Gait Posture 1993;1:45-60] negotiating raised surfaces such as curbs and stairs [Begg RK, Sparrow WA. Gait characteristics of young and older individuals negotiating a raised surface: implications for the prevention of falls. J Gerontol Med Sci 2000;55A:147-54; Mcfayden BJ, Winter DA. An integrated biomechanical analysis of normal stair ascent and descent. J Biomech 1988;21:733-44]. In addition, increasing research interest in age-related declines in gait that might predispose individuals to falls has engendered a very extensive literature concerning ageing effects on gait. While rapid locomotor adjustments are common in the course of daily activities there has been no previous review of the findings concerning gait adaptations when walking is terminated both rapidly and unexpectedly. The aims of this review were first, to summarise the key research findings and methodological considerations from studies of termination. The second aim was to demonstrate the effects of ageing and gait pathologies on termination with respect to the regulation of step characteristics, lower-limb muscle activation patterns and foot-ground reaction forces.

Aging↗