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PubMed1996

Beyond belief bias: reasoning from conceptual structures by mental models manipulation.

Mental models constitute an alternative to the rule-based systems in the explanation of human reasoning (Johnson-Laird, 1983). In this paper, we claim that the concept of believability generally used to categorize content and context effects is of little use within a semantic theory. Thus, we propose the use of categories that are directly extracted from subjective relations among concepts within the reasoning problem. We demonstrate that manipulations based on this kind of categorization produce predictable patterns of responses in reasoning problems. We present two experiments to test our predictions, using conditional and syllogistic reasoning problems, and in both cases, we demonstrate the influence of conceptual knowledge not only in natural contexts, but also in experimentally created artificial contexts.

Adult↗

PubMed2001

Reasoning counterfactually: combining and rending.

Counterfactual reasoning occurs when people are asked to assume for the sake of argument that a fact they previously thought was true is now false and to draw a conclusion on that basis. To accomplish this sort of reasoning requires a revising of one's beliefs, which was simulated in the present study. Students were shown a set of statements that they were to assure themselves was consistent. They were then asked to accept a counterfactual assumption as true and reconcile resulting inconsistencies among the set of statements. In these problems, one statement is a generality (e.g., All trees on the plaza are elms), another is a particular (e.g., This tree is a pine), and one is a counterfactual (e.g., Assume this tree is on the plaza). Students preferred to reconcile the inconsistency by identifying the generality as "true" and the particular as "false." They did this more often when the assumption combined categories than when it dislodged categories and when real beliefs were at stake rather than arbitrary generalities. This study tested current models of inference for their ability to account for counterfactual reasoning and found the results to be consistent with natural deduction system, mental models, and conceptual-integration network approaches to everyday reasoning.

Cognition↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Reasons for not performing LASIK in refractive surgery candidates.

PURPOSE: To analyze the reasons for which LASIK was rejected in eyes of patients who requested surgical correction of their refractive errors. METHODS: A retrospective study was performed in which data pertaining to refractive and ocular status of 338 patients who presented for refractive surgery at our LASIK facility between November 2002 and December 2003 were reviewed. The reasons for not performing LASIK in cases that were rejected were also noted. RESULTS: Among the 338 patients who requested refractive surgery, 223 (66%) underwent LASIK; surgery was not performed in 115 (34%) patients. The most common reason for rejecting LASIK was suboptimal central corneal thickness (55.1%). High myopia > -12.00 diopters (18.4%), keratoconus (9.6%), and hyperopia (5.9%) were other significant reasons. CONCLUSIONS: Suboptimal corneal thickness combined with a high amount of refractive error was found to be the leading cause of rejection of patients for LASIK in India.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2005

Reasons, methods used and decision-making for pregnancy termination among adolescents and older women in Mulago Hospital, Uganda.

OBJECTIVE: To explore the methods, reasons and decision-making process for termination of pregnancy among adolescents and older women, in Mulago hospital, Kampala, Uganda. DESIGN: Comparative study. SUBJECTS: Nine hundred and forty two women seeking postabortion care, of which 333 had induced abortion (of whom 115 were adolescents). SETTING: The emergency gynaecological ward of Mulago Hospital, Kampala, Uganda from September 2003 through June 2004. RESULTS: Women with induced abortion were single, in polygamous marital relationships and of lower parity (p<0.001); had lower education and number of living children (p<0.05), reported more (p<0.001) mistimed, unplanned or unwanted pregnancies, and were 13 times more likely to have recent history of domestic violence. Relationship issues were the most common reason for pregnancy termination for both categories. Decision-making for induced abortion was influenced by socio-economic, educational and personal considerations. Instrumentation and use of local herbs in the genitalia were the most common methods for pregnancy termination. Neither methods used for pregnancy termination nor reasons differed when adolescents were compared with older women. CONCLUSION: Relationship issues influence the decision-making process for pregnancy termination. Neither methods used for pregnancy termination nor reasons for pregnancy termination differ when adolescents are compared with older women.

Abortion, Induced↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Leprosy control in the post leprosaria abolition years in Nigeria: reasons for default and irregular attendance at treatment centres.

A questionnaire was administered to all patients with leprosy seen at the four leprosy clinics in Anambra State in a face to face interview. The questions covered, among other items, the clinic attendance behaviour and the single most important reason, monthly, for absenteeism in the preceding year. The total and individual frequencies of the reasons for absenteeism were determined for the various behavioural subgroups. The differences in frequencies and associations were analysed. Values of P < 0.05 were considered as significant. The results showed that 27 females and 26 males were interviewed. 39.6% of the patients were irregular attenders 735% were defaulters. Attendance at meetings (P < .001); work at home (P < 0.01) fear/shame/indignation (P < 0.05); no confidence in treatment (P < 0.025) were significant reasons for absenteeism among irregular attenders inter-current illnesses as reasons for absenteeism did not differ significantly between regular and irregular attendees. The association between clinic attendance behaviour and lesion location (revealed Vs concealed) was not statistically significant (X(2)0.3). The findings in this study indicate that in the post leprosaria abolition years, default and irregular clinic attendance by patients with leprosy are numerically large and may compound the problems of control programmes, and thus negate the realization of the global goal of intercepting leprosy transmission.

Absenteeism↗

PubMed1989

[Experimental analysis of some determinants of inductive reasoning].

Three experiments were conducted from a behavioral perspective to investigate the determinants of inductive reasoning and to compare some methodological differences. The dependent variable used in these experiments was the threshold of confident response (TCR), which was defined as "the minimal sample size required to establish generalization from instances." Experiment 1 examined the effects of population size on inductive reasoning, and the results from 35 college students showed that the TCR varied in proportion to the logarithm of population size. In Experiment 2, 30 subjects showed distinct sensitivity to both prior probability and base-rate. The results from 70 subjects who participated in Experiment 3 showed that the TCR was affected by its consequences (risk condition), and especially, that humans were sensitive to a loss situation. These results demonstrate the sensitivity of humans to statistical variables in inductive reasoning. Furthermore, methodological comparison indicated that the experimentally observed values of TCR were close to, but not as precise as the optimal values predicted by Bayes' model. On the other hand, the subjective TCR estimated by subjects was highly discrepant from the observed TCR. These findings suggest that various aspects of inductive reasoning can be fruitfully investigated not only from subjective estimations such as probability likelihood but also from an objective behavioral perspective.

Adult↗

PubMed1992

[Preschool children's prosocial judgments and their reasoning in the empathic situations].

The purpose of this study was to examine preschool children's prosocial judgments and their reasoning for prosocial episodes. One hundred children were individually asked to do prosocial judgments and their reasoning for three prosocial episodes: helping, sharing, and comforting. In the episode there was a crying or a normal facial expression of a person in distress under the condition of high and low empathic situations. The results indicated that the crying face and high empathic situation increased the rate of prosocial judgment more than the normal face and low empathic situation, respectively, and older children (5-year-olds) did prosocial judgment than younger ones (4-year-olds). Furthermore, the crying face induced the empathic reasoning, especially in the high empathic situation. These results supported that preschool children were able to use the empathic reasoning reflected in the negative facial expression and the cause of distress of the victim.

Child Behavior↗

PubMed1993

Linking patient and family stories to caregivers' use of clinical reasoning.

Due to pressures inherent in the current health care environment, health professionals' interactions with patients may be limited to attending to the disease process by using the scientific method of clinical reasoning. Health professionals may find it difficult to break out of this pattern of reductionistic thinking and acting to use other forms of clinical reasoning and to elicit patients' perceptions of the illness experience. Older adults and their families are particularly susceptible to being treated in a routine, disease-focused manner. A growing body of literature gives voice to the stories and concerns of these persons. The purposes of this paper are to discuss thinking and clinical reasoning from several perspectives and to identify selections from literature that enhance understanding of the need to pay attention to both the disease and the illness experience and to use all forms of clinical reasoning.

Adaptation, Psychological↗

PubMedDate not supplied

The clinical reasoning of an occupational therapy assistant.

This qualitative case study focused on the clinical reasoning of a certified occupational therapy assistant who had 16 years of practice experience. Observation and interview methods were used to collect data. Transcripts and field notes were coded using a priori codes of the forms of clinical reasoning of occupational therapists identified in published research. The study participant demonstrated the use of pragmatic, procedural, interactive, conditional, and narrative reasoning. We encourage further research to support these findings and to increase the understanding of the forms of clinical reasoning used by occupational therapy assistants.

Clinical Competence↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Effects of problem-based learning on clinical reasoning in occupational therapy.

OBJECTIVE: Problem-based learning (PBL) has been described as an educational method that enhances clinical reasoning skills. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of an intensive, problem-based course on the development of clinical reasoning skills of undergraduate occupational therapy students. METHOD: A quasi-experimental pretest-posttest design was used with a convenience sample of 48 undergraduate seniors. All students participated in an intensive 5-week, 30-hour, PBL course scheduled just prior to Level II fieldwork. The Self-Assessment of Clinical Reflection and Reasoning (SACRR) developed by Royeen, Mu, Barrett, and Luebben (2001) was administered on the first and last days of the course. RESULTS: The Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test revealed statistically significant differences in pre- and posttest scores for 11 of 26 items on the SACRR. In addition, the overall total score increased from 96.88 to 102.55 (p < .01). CONCLUSION: The results suggest that a short, but intensive PBL course in the senior year of an occupational therapy curriculum can significantly facilitate the development of students' clinical reasoning skills.

Adult↗

PubMed1997

The reasons for tooth loss in geriatric patients attending two surgical clinics in Jerusalem, Israel.

OBJECTIVES: Numerous studies around the world have been conducted in order to understand the reasons for tooth extractions in various age groups. Most studies have dealt with the general adult population but little attention has been paid to the elderly population. In Israel, as in most of the western countries, the elderly population is growing rapidly and thus demands for its dental needs are also increasing. In order to meet the dental requirements of the geriatric population, data on the main reasons of tooth mortality have been collected. DESIGN: Retrospective analysis of reasons for extraction divided into three categories: caries, periodontal disease and "other". SUBJECTS: The files of 302 consecutive elderly patients aged 65-95 years attending for extraction. The cause for tooth extraction was gathered from the written diagnosis described by the operator as well as from radiographs. Setting Two surgical clinics in Jerusalem serving low income residents. Results Results indicated that 30% of the extractions were due to caries, 65% were due to periodontal disease and only 6.4% related to "other" reasons. In both, males and females, periodontal disease was the major cause for tooth loss yet, females exhibited more extractions due to caries than males (35% vs 23% respectively). A relatively high incidence of tooth loss was documented for the 85+ age group. Of the teeth that were extracted, incisors and molars were equally the most frequent (29%) followed by premolars (26%) and canines (17%). Premolars were the teeth most frequently extracted out of the teeth removed due to caries (32%) whereas incisors were the most frequently removed within the group of teeth extracted due to periodontal disease (31%). CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study point to the importance of prevention and treatment of dental diseases, particularly periodontal disease, in adults aged 0 years and above in order to prevent tooth loss in their later years.

Aged↗

PubMed1998

Analysis of the reasons for transfers between hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis and their effect on survivals.

Data on the outcomes of patients who are transferred between hemodialysis (HD) and peritoneal dialysis (PD) are scant. This study analyzes data on patients transferred from their initial modality at the University Hospital Gent between 1978 and 1996 for the reasons for, and outcomes from, the transfer. The reasons for the transfer from HD to PD (n = 35) were access problems (25%), cardiovascular (40%) and blood pressure problems (25%), and personal choice (10%). For the transfer from PD to HD (n = 32) peritonitis (50%), social problems (14%), adequacy or ultrafiltration problems (25%), and leakage (11%) were the reasons. There were no differences in survivals between patients who started on HD and who were transferred to PD, and those who remained on HD (P = 0.4). There were improved survivals for the patients who started on PD and who were transferred to HD compared to those remaining on PD (P = 0.01). It is concluded that transferring problematic HD patients to PD does not improve their survivals, whereas the survival of patients with PD-related complications is improved by transferring them to HD. This is due to the differences in the reasons for transfer, which are PD-related complications in the case of PD patients, and cardiovascular problems in the case of HD patients.

Comorbidity↗

PubMed2000

[Methodologic and systemic reasons for failures of metal ceramics].

Only by the use of scanning electron microscope in investigations concerning the metal-porcelain interface of ceramic masses upon metal frames (approx. 160 crowns since 1967), essential differences in the reason of mistakes have been revealed recently. Primarily, methodic mistakes are to be declared relevant. Independent of their veneering origin, they contribute to fractures within the ceramic layer or to crack-offs of the fired ceramic masses from the metal frame. Obviously, the systemic causes for mistakes in metal ceramics revealed to be dependent on the groups of veneers. Veneering involves non-manageable reasons for mistakes. These qualities in the material are the coefficient of thermal expansion or the share of palladium in the veneer. Very often, palladium is responsible for the formation of bubbles in the ceramic layer, and thus it is the reason for the development of cracks. The so-called pure titanium is quite extraordinary, when covered with ceramic mass, because the so-called alpha case layer cannot be bridged, despite 10 years of permanent research in that field. The clinical critical examination of systemic mistakes, however, proves to be mild. Clinical reasons for mistakes in metal ceramics remain disregarded in this paper.

Crowns↗

PubMed2000

Predictors of inactivation and reasons for participant inactivation during a skin cancer chemoprevention study.

Maintaining good compliance is a major challenge in long-term cancer chemoprevention trials. Minimizing the number of inactive participants during a trial is an important factor in maximizing compliance. Identifying reasons for and predictors of inactivation is the first step in being able to reduce participant inactivation. In this skin cancer chemoprevention trial, the 2,297 participants were randomized to receive 25,000 IU of retinol daily or a placebo. Median follow-up time was 3.8 years. The reason for inactivation was determined for each participant who stopped taking the study capsules. Six hundred and seventy-seven (29.7%) participants became inactive during the 5-year study. There was no significant difference between the number of participants inactivating by treatment group or sex. The most common reasons for inactivation were illness of subject, spouse, or a close relative (18.6%) and experience of a clinical symptom consistent with vitamin A ingestion (17.1%). Participants in the vitamin A group (10.1%) more frequently cited symptoms coded as "not consistent with vitamin A" as the reason for inactivation compared with those in the placebo group [5.4% (P < 0.05)]. The inactivation rate was highest in the first month of the trial and declined thereafter. A low education level (hazard ratio, 1.59) and unmarried status (hazard ratio, 1.29) were the only significant predictors of inactivation. These findings may be useful in developing targeted strategies to decrease inactivation and thereby increase compliance in future chemoprevention trials. However, these findings need to be confirmed because published research in this area is very limited.

Adult↗

PubMed2000

Aspects of self-concept and their relationship to language performance and verbal reasoning ability.

It has been claimed that self-concept is multidimensional, with dimensions such as mathematical self-concept and self-concept in language. The present study investigated the relationship of academic self-concept in language with performance on school-related language tasks and verbal reasoning ability. A total of 512 students in grades 7, 9, and 11 rated four aspects of their academic self-concept in language: self-perception, self-efficacy, self-esteem, and others' perception of their abilities. Verbal reasoning ability and performance on language tasks were assessed. Path analysis showed that performance on language tasks was influenced strongly by verbal reasoning abilities. Self-esteem and others' perception of one's abilities were affected directly by language performance. No direct relationship was found between academic self-concept in language and verbal reasoning ability. The results suggest that adolescents do not construe their academic self-concept according to their abilities but according to their performance in school and others' response to it.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2000

Children's rights: reasoning and their level of moral development: an empirical investigation.

Children's reasoning about their rights is largely determined by their level of development. Since rights-reasoning concerns essentially moral issues, the best foundation to contextualise the developmental process mentioned would be to consider a moral-developmental approach. In this regard Kohlberg's theory of moral development has been found to be the primary theory that researchers have built on. The article focuses on an empirical investigation done with 312 South African children of varying ages, cultures and language groups into their level of moral-development and rights-reasoning. The two questionnaires used were Kohlberg's Standard Issue Score (Form B) and Melton's Children's Rights Interview. The most important findings made were that Kohlberg's theory of universalizability and unvariant order of sequence along with its applicability to gender and culture was confirmed for this South African study. Furthermore an important correlation between rights-reasoning development and level of moral ethical development was made which implies that an interdependent relationship exists between them.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2000

Reasons that orthodontic faculty teach and consider leaving teaching.

To assess reasons why orthodontic faculty consider leaving academia, a pretested questionnaire was mailed to 200 full-time (FT) and 200 part-time (PT) faculty randomly selected from the United States and Canada. A total of 144 (72 percent) of FT and 120 (60 percent) PT responded. About 38 percent FT and 25 percent PT were currently considering leaving academia. The average age of each group was about fifty years. Although significant differences were found in fifteen factors affecting the decision to leave, three factors ranked as most important (means> or =3.4) for FTs: salary support, financial support of department, and control over work or destiny. The three factors most important (means>3. 1) for PTs were: challenge of private practice, family commitments, and personal. FT and PT were similar in the most important and least important factors influencing their initial reasons to teach and satisfaction in teaching. However, the reasons why FT considered leaving were work related, while the PT's reasons were more personal. With the current shortage of FT orthodontic faculty becoming imminently greater, it appears that work-related issues could be addressed directly by administration.

Adult↗

PubMed2001

The relationship of education and moral reasoning to ethical practice: a meta-analysis of quantitative studies.

This meta-analytic article of quantitative studies is aimed at summarizing knowledge gained on ethical practice for the period of 1987 to 1997 and at suggesting directions for future research. It specifically investigated the relationships of education and moral reasoning to ethical practice, with ethical practice as the dependent variable. The sample consisted of eight studies that investigated the relationship between education and ethical practice, and five studies that addressed the relationship between moral reasoning and ethical practice. A small to medium relationship between education and ethical practice was found, with an overall mean for effect sizes, d = .44, p = .000. To test the relationship between moral reasoning and ethical practice the Pearson product moment coefficient r was used as the effect size estimate, as each of the studies in this group reported correlation analyses. A small but significant relationship was found between moral reasoning and ethical practice (overall r of .2, p = .000). These results are evaluated in comparison to those of a decade earlier and overall trends are identified. As before, the majority of the studies are in the form of dissertations, and few of their authors have published their work in the general scientific literature. Similarly, clarity has not yet been achieved with regard to the conceptual and operational definitions of ethical practice. Theoretical, measurement, and policy issues are discussed in highlighting the implications of the study.

Education, Nursing↗