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PubMed2002

Immunogenicity of a recombinant fusion protein of tandem repeat epitopes of foot-and-mouth disease virus type Asia 1 for guinea pigs.

In this study, the sequences of capsid protein VPI regions of YNAs1.1 and YNAs1.2 isolates of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) were analyzed and a peptide containing amino acids (aa) 133-158 of VP1 and aa 20-34 of VP4 of FMDV type Asia I was assumed to contain B and T cell epitopes, because it is hypervariable and includes a cell attachment site RGD located in the G-H loop. The DNA fragments encoding aa 133-158 of VP1 and aa 20-34 of VP4 of FMDV type Asia 1 were chemically synthesized and ligated into a tandem repeat of aa 133-158-20 approximately 34-133-158. In order to enhance its immunogenicity, the tandem repeat was inserted downstream of the beta-galactosidase gene in the expression vector pWR590. This insertion yielded a recombinant expression vector pAS1 encoding the fusion protein. The latter reacted with sera from FMDV type Asia 1-infected animals in vitro and elicited high levels of neutralizing antibodies in guinea pigs. The T cell proliferation in immunized animals increased following stimulation with the fusion protein. It is reported for the first time that a recombinant fusion protein vaccine was produced using B and T cell epitopes of FMDV type Asia 1 and that this fusion protein was immunogenic. The fusion protein reported here can serve as a candidate of fusion epitopes for design of a vaccine against FMDV type Asia 1.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Geographical and age-stratified distributions of foot-and-mouth disease virus-seropositive and probang-positive cattle herds in the Adamawa province of Cameroon.

Six of the seven known serotypes of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus occur in Africa. This paper describes the results of a population-based cross-sectional study of the seroprevalence of FMD and the persistence of the virus in cattle herds and associated sheep flocks in the Adamawa province of Cameroon. Antibody titres measured by the virus neutralising test indicated that serotypes O, A and SAT2 viruses had been circulating in the province. The estimates of apparent seroprevalence in cattle herds, based on five juvenile animals (eight to 24 months old) per herd, were 74.8 per cent for serotype SAT2, 30.8 per cent for serotype A and 11.2 per cent for serotype O, indicating recent exposure; the estimates based on animals more than 24 months of age were 91.1 per cent for SAT2, 83.6 per cent for A and 34.2 per cent for serotype O. Epithelial and oropharyngeal samples were collected from cattle and small ruminants, cultured and typed by ELISA; serotypes A and SAT2 were isolated from both types of sample. The herd-level estimate of apparent prevalence of probang-positive herds was 19.5 per cent and the animal-level estimate of apparent prevalence was 3.4 per cent. The geographical distribution of the seropositive herds based on juveniles suggested that recent SAT2 exposure was widespread and particularly high in the more northern and western parts of the province, whereas recent exposure to serotype A was patchy and more concentrated in the south and east. This distribution corresponded very closely with the distribution of herds from which virus was recovered by probang, indicating recent exposure or infection. No serotype O viruses were recovered from cattle, and the distribution of seropositive herds suggested very localised recent exposure. The apparent prevalence of probang-positive animals declined with the age of the animal and the period since the last recorded outbreak in the herd.

Age Distribution↗
PubMed1984

Revaccination response of cattle as a function of the 140S foot and mouth disease antigen dose.

Fifty adult cattle were subdivided in 2 equal groups and inoculated with foot and mouth disease vaccines containing either 5 micrograms or 0.01 microgram of O1BFS 1860 140S antigen per 3 ml dose. Four months later they were subdivided into groups of 5 and injected with vaccines containing concentrations of the 140S antigen ranging from 54 micrograms to 7 ng per 3 ml dose. Bleedings were carried out periodically and the serum neutralizing antibody titres showed that the revaccination responses were influenced by the dose of 140S antigen in both the primary and secondary vaccinations. A linear log relationship was demonstrated between the anamnestic serum antibody log response and the dose of antigen in the secondary vaccines.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Cytokine and Toll-like receptor mRNAs in the nasal-associated lymphoid tissues of cattle during foot-and-mouth disease virus infection.

The pharyngeal region is known to play an important role in foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) infection in relation to acute disease and viral persistence. In this study, the local mucosal immune response in nasal-associated lymphoid tissue (NALT) of cattle infected with FMDV (strain O UKG 34/2001) was examined. Quantitative "real-time" RT-PCR assays were used to measure mRNA expression of cytokines (IFN-alpha, beta and gamma, IL-2, IL-1alpha and TNF-alpha) and Toll-like receptors (TLR)-3 and -4. NALTs from dorsal soft palate were collected from cattle at 7 days post-infection (dpi) and from carriers and non-carriers at 64 dpi. Expression of IFN-alpha mRNA was significantly greater in NALT during acute disease than in uninfected animals. Increased expression of IFN-gamma and IL-1alpha mRNA was also observed but was much lower than IFN-alpha expression. There was a slight increase in mRNA expression of TNF-alpha and IL-2. During persistence, TNF-alpha mRNA expression in carrier cattle was much higher than in non-carrier cattle. Expression of TLR-4 in NALT during the acute stage of infection was greater than in uninfected animals. Carrier and non-carrier cattle did not differ in respect of expression of TLR-3 and -4 mRNA in NALT.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Determinants of early foot-and-mouth disease virus dynamics in pigs.

This paper provides a quantitative description of the early infectious process in pigs experimentally infected with foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV), obtained by dose-dependent, time course studies of viral load in serum. Pigs were inoculated by the intravenous or intradermal/subcutaneous route with FMDV and housed together in groups or individually. The effects of dose, inoculation route and exposure intensity on the replication of FMDV in vivo and the development of disease were studied. It was shown that the higher the dose, the shorter was the time to the start of active viraemia and to the onset of clinical signs. Exposure intensity and housing conditions influenced the viral dynamics of FMDV. Increasing the exposure intensity, by increasing the number of infected pigs housed together, had the effect of synchronizing the infection and reducing the variance in the start of active viraemia. Increasing the number of pigs housed together also increased the interaction between the pigs and the activity of individual pigs, which had the effect of shortening the time to the onset of clinical signs such as vesicle formation. Intradermal inoculation was more effective than intravenous inoculation for transmitting FMDV to pigs, resulting in shorter times to the start of active viraemia and in higher clinical scores.

Animals↗
PubMed1990

Infestation of cattle by the brown ear tick, Rhipicephalus appendiculatus, does not affect serological responses to foot-and-mouth disease vaccine.

A comparison of the serological responses of tick-free and tick-infested cattle following inoculation with the Botswana SAT 2 foot-and-mouth disease vaccine indicated that infestation by the brown ear tick, Rhipicephalus appendiculatus, did not affect serological responses to the vaccine. This finding implies that infestation by this tick species is unlikely to influence immunity following routine inoculation against foot-and-mouth disease in tick endemic areas.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Immune response in mice inoculated with plasmid DNAs containing multiple-epitopes of foot-and-mouth disease virus.

This paper focuses on the development of candidate DNA vaccine encoding antigenic epitopes of type O foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV). A series of plasmids encoding different combinations of B cell epitopes and a T cell epitope were constructed and characterized by inoculating BALB/c mice. The specific antibodies were only detectable in the mice inoculated with plasmids encoding the T cell epitope and B cell epitopes from sites 5 and 1, within which site 5 includes residues 135-167 of VP1 and site 1 includes 141-160 region (G-H loop) and carboxyl terminus of VP1. Stronger cellular immune responses were also observed in these mice using T cell proliferation assay.

Animals↗
PubMed1976

Effect of heat on foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) in the components of milk from FMDV-infected cows.

Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) survived in skim milk, cream and the pelleted cellular debris components of milk obtained from FMDV-infected cows after pasteurization at 72 degrees C for 0-25 min. Virus was recovered from whole milk of infected cows after that milk was heated at 72 degrees C. for 5 min. and from the skim milk component after it was heated at the same temperature for 2 min. Evaporation of the whole milk samples after they were heated at 72 degrees C. for 3 min. did not inactivate the virus, but evaporation of infected skim milk samples after they were heated at 72 degrees C. for 0-5 min. did inactivate the virus. FMDV survived in the cream component after it was heated at 93 degrees C. for 0-25 min.

Animals↗
PubMed1987

Subtyping of European foot-and-mouth disease virus strains by nucleotide sequence determination.

The VP1-coding regions of foot-and-mouth disease virus strains from 18 recent European outbreaks and of 9 strains isolated more than 20 years ago and used in part as vaccines were determined by direct cDNA sequencing. Comparison of the sequences revealed that most of the isolated outbreak viruses are closely related to the vaccine strains used. Isolates from the Italian epizootic of 1984 to 1985 correspond, for example, to the vaccine strain A5 Parma 62; the outbreak in 1984 in Bernbeuren, Federal Republic of Germany, was induced by A5 Allier 60; outbreaks in 1982 in Funen, Denmark, and in Murchin, German Democratic Republic, were caused by O1 Lausanne 65. Viruses isolated during the 1983 Iberian epizootic show a close relationship to the vaccine strain A5 Allier 60 but were probably derived from another not yet identified vaccine strain from Spain. Only two minor outbreaks in the Federal Republic of Germany, A Aachen in 1976 and O Wuppertal in 1982, did not correspond to the classical European strains but were obviously introduced from outside. We suggest that nucleotide sequence analysis should be used as a standard method of diagnosis, because when compared with other techniques it more clearly reveals the origin and course of epizootics and offers the possibility of preventing further outbreaks.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Use of vaccination against foot and mouth disease in zoo animals, endangered species and exceptionally valuable animals.

A historical review of foot and mouth disease (FMD) in non-domestic species is given and the use of FMD vaccines to protect those species is described. Several non-domestic species are susceptible to FMD. Legislation in many countries, based on the definition of FMD-free status as determined by the Office International des Epizooties (OIE: World organisation for animal health), forms an important barrier against the use of vaccines. National authorities may even feel obliged to slaughter animals of threatened species protected by international agreements during an outbreak of FMD to preserve their FMD-free status. The importance of international breeding programmes for endangered species is forcing the international community to reconsider the role that vaccination against FMD should play in animal health prevention programmes of captive populations. Much research is still required in regard to vaccine types and diagnostic procedures. Species-specific differences in susceptibility to FMD make this a challenging research topic for zoological institutions.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Vaccination as a control measure during the outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease in 2000 in Korea.

The Republic of Korea had been free from foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) for 66 years until 15 cases were confirmed between 24 March and 15 April in 2000. The FMD virus isolated in Korea was an O Pan Asia type, which was also responsible for the recent outbreaks in Japan and the U.K. Control measures including the stamping-out of infected animals on neighbouring farms, movement restrictions and emergency vaccination were implemented. The decision to vaccinate was made because the cattle affected were showing severe FMD lesions, there was significant possibility that a large amount of virus had already been shed and conditions at the time seemed to favour wind-borne spread. Also, because the spread was limited to cattle, it was assumed that the use of vaccinations would be more effective than if pigs had been affected. All susceptible animals within 10 km radius of the infected farms were vaccinated with inactivated, double-oil emulsion vaccines. Totals of 860,700 and 661,770 animals were vaccinated during the first and second round of booster vaccinations, and were completed within five months of the first outbreak. The government decided to adopt a let-live policy so that the vaccinated animals were not slaughtered. However, they were placed under movement restrictions and had to be identified and registered. Although there were concerns about the vaccinated animals becoming carriers, extensive serological surveillance using NSP ELISA found no evidence of FMD in the remaining vaccinated population. The use of emergency vaccinations in 2000 is regarded as being a major factor in limiting the spread of FMD and containing the outbreak within a month.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

RGD sequence of foot-and-mouth disease virus is essential for infecting cells via the natural receptor but can be bypassed by an antibody-dependent enhancement pathway.

Foot-and-mouth disease virus appears to initiate infection by binding to cells at an Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) sequence found in the flexible beta G-beta H loop of the viral capsid protein VP1. The role of the RGD sequence in attachment of virus to cells was tested by using synthetic full-length viral RNAs mutated within or near the RGD sequence. Baby hamster kidney (BHK) cells transfected with three different RNAs carrying mutations bordering the RGD sequence produced infectious viruses with wild-type plaque morphology; however, one of these mutant viruses bound to cells less efficiently than wild type. BHK cells transfected with RNAs containing changes within the RGD sequence produced noninfectious particles indistinguishable from wild-type virus in terms of sedimentation coefficient, binding to monoclonal antibodies, and protein composition. These virus-like particles are defined as ads- viruses, since they were unable to adsorb to and infect BHK cells. These mutants were defective only in cell binding, since antibody-complexed ads- viruses were able to infect Chinese hamster ovary cells expressing an immunoglobulin Fc receptor. These results confirm the essential role of the RGD sequence in binding of foot-and-mouth disease virus to susceptible cells and demonstrate that the natural cellular receptor for the virus serves only to bind virus to the cell.

Adsorption↗
PubMed2006

Deterministic, compensatory mutational events in the capsid of foot-and-mouth disease virus in response to the introduction of mutations found in viruses from persistent infections.

The evolution of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) (biological clone C-S8c1) in persistently infected cells led to the emergence of a variant (R100) that displayed increased virulence, reduced stability, and other modified phenotypic traits. Some mutations fixed in the R100 genome involved a cluster of highly conserved residues around the capsid pores that participate in interactions with each other and/or between capsid protomers. We have investigated phenotypic and genotypic changes that occurred when these replacements were introduced into the C-S8c1 capsid. The C3007V and M3014L mutations exerted no effect on plaque size or viral yield during lytic infections, or on virion stability, but led to a reduction in biological fitness; the D3009A mutation caused drastic reductions in plaque size and viability. Remarkably, competition of the C3007V mutant with the nonmutated virus invariably resulted in the fixation of the D3009A mutation in the C3007V capsid. In turn, the presence of the D3009A mutation invariably led to the fixation of the M3014L mutation. In both cases, two individually disadvantageous mutations led, together, to an increase in fitness, as the double mutants outcompeted the nonmutated genotype. The higher fitness of C3007V/D3009A was related to a faster multiplication rate. These observations provide evidence for a chain of linked, compensatory mutational events in a defined region of the FMDV capsid. Furthermore, they indicate that the clustering of unique amino acid replacements in viruses from persistent infections may also occur in cytolytic infections in response to changes caused by previous mutations without an involvement of the new mutations in the adaptation to a different environment.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed1983

Physicochemical transformation of milk components and release of foot-and-mouth disease virus.

Possible mechanisms for protective roles of milk components on foot-and-mouth disease virus present in the milk of infected cows were examined. Light scattering bands collected from Ficoll-sucrose gradient fractions of skim-milk contained membrane-limited structures but these were non-infectious for bovine kidney cells. Infectivity titres in buttermilk higher than those of the original cream or butter suggested association of virus with milk fat globules. Increased infectivity titres in skim-milk after treatment with SDS suggested release of virus particles from dissociated casein micelle subunits. Chelating agents, de-emulsifying agents and trypsin, which alter the structure of the individual milk components casein, lipid and milk fat globule membrane were without effect on infectivity titres.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Influence of a hypertonic medium on cell susceptibility to foot-and-mouth disease virus].

The influence of hypertonic medium on the relationship between two cell clones of IB-RS-2 swine line and the foot-and-mouth disease virus was studied. Although the number of infected cells was increased by the cell treatment with the hypertonic medium, before or during the time of virus adsorption and penetration onto the cells, showed by the plaque number, the viral replication was partially inhibited as showed by the plaque size as by the viral yield in one-cycle of infection. On the other hand, the cell treatment with that medium after virus adsorption and penetration time inhibited as the plaque number and size as the yield of the foot-and-mouth disease virus.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Identification of native foot-and-mouth disease virus non-structural protein 2C as a serological indicator to differentiate infected from vaccinated livestock.

Cattle and pigs which have been vaccinated against foot-and-mouth disease can be distinguished from convalescent animals by radio-immunoprecipitation and sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of the virus-induced proteins reacting with the respective sera. Baby hamster kidney cells infected with foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) (serotype A24) were labelled with 35S-methionine and the virus-induced proteins were precipitated with sera from vaccinated and subsequently challenged animals, convalescent animals retained for over 300 days, animals vaccinated or infected with viruses belonging to all serotypes of FMDV, and animals infected with encephalomyocarditis (EMC) or porcine or bovine enteroviruses. In addition to the structural proteins of the virus, the non-structural proteins 2C, 3ABC, 3C, 3CD and 3D were precipitated by convalescent sera, but only 3D was precipitated by serum from vaccinated animals. Proteins L, 2C and 3C were precipitated only after challenge with a heterotypic virus (serotype O1 Tunisia), indicating that virus replication of the challenge virus had taken place. No precipitation was detected with sera from EMC or enterovirus-infected animals. The results indicate that protein 2C, and to a lesser extent the polypeptide 3ABC, could be used to differentiate potential carrier convalescent animals from vaccinated livestock.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

The foot-and-mouth disease epidemic in Dumfries and Galloway, 2001. 1: Characteristics and control.

The foot-and-mouth disease epidemic in Dumfries and Galloway in south-west Scotland comprised 177 infected premises (IPS) in 24 geographical clusters, and ran from March 1 until May 23, 2001. Initial seeding of infection was by livestock (predominantly sheep) that had passed through Longtown Market in adjacent Cumbria. Thereafter, spread within existing, and to new, clusters was associated with the movement of personnel and vehicles, with further transmission by Longtown Market contacts and across common boundaries. Sheep and cattle premises were equally affected. After the peak of the epidemic at the beginning of the third week of March, the upper possible limit of attack rates for premises contiguous to IPS, and premises within 3 km, remained around 10 per cent, with new clusters emerging more distantly. Control procedures included traditional methods of slaughter of all animals on IPS and, elsewhere, of animals considered by veterinary assessment to be Dangerous Contacts; movement restrictions; enhanced biosecurity; tracing of potential sources and spread of virus; and surveillance of premises subsequently considered at risk. These methods were supplemented by the novel pre-emptive slaughter, without veterinary assessment, of all susceptible livestock on all premises contiguous to IPS, and of small ruminants and pigs within a 3 km radius (known as the Protection Zone) around IPS. In total, approximately 80,000 cattle, 564,000 sheep, 2600 pigs and 500 goats were slaughtered, the novel methods accounting for 29 per cent of all cattle and 75 per cent of all sheep killed. Limitations of existing national databases necessitated the development of local databases to administer control procedures.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

The 2001 foot and mouth disease epidemic in the United Kingdom: animal welfare perspectives.

The management of the foot and mouth disease (FMD) epidemic which occurred in the United Kingdom (UK) in 2001 resulted in widespread animal welfare problems. These problems arose firstly because of the large numbers of animals slaughtered to bring the epidemic under control, which meant that the conditions under which animals were slaughtered and the manner in which this was carried out often breached regulations concerning welfare at slaughter. Secondly, the restrictions imposed on movements, especially animal movements, resulted in what appeared to be readily avoidable difficulties with livestock dying from, for example, food shortages and pregnant animals giving birth under unsuitable conditions. This brief review is based on the personal experiences of the authors as well as relevant observations and reports from a variety of sources.

Animal Welfare↗