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PubMed1993

Dietary phosphorus, calcium metabolism and bone.

Many American women consume diets high in phosphorus and low in calcium. Concern about this dietary pattern stems from studies that show high phosphorus, low calcium intake causes secondary hyperparathyroidism and bone loss in several animal models. Recent studies in young adults have shown that a high phosphorus, moderately low calcium intake results in mild secondary hyperparathyroidism that persisted over 4 wk. However, plasma concentrations of the active form of vitamin D did not change in these subjects, despite stimulatory changes in parathyroid hormone and serum ionized calcium. Studies in normal adult men have shown that dietary phosphorus at levels within the observed normal range of intake can finely regulate the renal production and serum concentration of 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol. Thus, prolonged high phosphorus intake may impair the usual homeostatic mechanisms that are evoked when dietary calcium is limited. The current dietary patterns of high phosphorus, low calcium consumption result in persistent changes in the calcium regulating hormones that are not conductive to optimizing peak bone mass or slowing the rate of bone loss.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1997

Nutrition in general practice in Italy.

Since the early 1950s the health promoting qualities of the Mediterranean diet (characterized by low intakes of total and saturated fat and high intakes of fiber and complex carbohydrates) have been acknowledged. Unfortunately, this dietary pattern, effective in lowering the risk of coronary artery disease as well as oxidative stress and carcinogenesis, is widespread only in the southern part of Italy, whereas the eating style and morbidity pattern in northern Italy are similar to those in northern Europe. Moreover, trends in eating behaviors in southern Italy are at risk of impairing the comparative advantage given by the Mediterranean diet. The current eating profile in northern Italy and the trend in southern Italy are therefore a suitable field for educational interventions by general practitioners (GPs) to preserve and promote healthier dietary patterns. Nutrition training of GPs does not yet appear sufficient to enable them to tackle this need. The undergraduate curriculum used to include (and no longer does) only an optional course in basic nutrition; little more teaching is added during vocational training. In Piedmont, a north-western region around Turin, two four-hour seminars for vocational trainees deal with the topics of basic nutrition in children, adolescents, and adults; malnutrition in the elderly; and diet treatment of chronic renal failure. Continuing medical education covers the same topics and a further module deals with diet in the control of diabetes. An effort is needed in the nutritional training of Italian GPs to enable them to give to their patients more than merely commonsense advice.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1994

A preliminary study of potential dietary risk factors for coronary heart disease among Chinese American adolescents.

This study investigated dietary knowledge, attitudes toward diet, behavioral factors affecting diet, and dietary patterns between American Chinese middle school students and Chinese middle school students living in China. Significant differences occurred in these variables between the two groups of students. Chinese students living in China had less knowledge and a less favorable attitude. However, they exhibited more positive behavioral factors affecting diet which include culture, religion, customs, economic factors, beliefs, and values. As for the dietary pattern, Chinese student living in China consumed less meat, dairy products, fat, sweets and snacks, and fast foods, and consumed more fruits, vegetables, and starch.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1995

Macular pigment density in monozygotic twins.

PURPOSE: Research shows wide variation in macular pigment density between individuals. As are other ocular pigments, this variation may be genetic. To test this hypothesis, the authors measured macular pigment density, serum carotenoid concentrations, and general dietary patterns in 10 pairs of identical twins. METHODS: Macular pigment was measured psychophysically by a 1 degree test stimulus. Foveal and parafoveal sensitivities to 460-nm and 530-nm light were compared. Determining the difference in log sensitivity to the 460-nm light for the fovea (where macular pigment is most dense) and the parafovea (where macular pigment is optically immeasurable), after normalizing with respect to 530 nm, yields a measurement of the optical density of macular pigment. Concentrations of carotenoids within the serum were measured using reverse-phase, high-performance liquid chromatography. Dietary patterns were determined using a food-frequency questionnaire. RESULTS: Statistically significant differences in macular pigment optical density were found for 5 of the 10 twin pairs. For these five pairs, differences in macular pigment density were moderately related to differences in the intake of dietary fat, iron, linoleic and oleic acid, fiber, and total calories (P < 0.10, individually; P < 0.05, for an equally weighted composite of these variables). There was no significant relationship, however, found between macular pigment density and carotenoids in the blood and diet. CONCLUSIONS: Given the putative protective role of macular pigment, variations in macular pigment density may have clinical significance. The conclusion that macular pigment is not completely determined genetically allows the possibility that macular pigment density may be modified for the protective purposes. The current data suggest that dietary fat, iron, and fiber may influence macular pigment levels (perhaps through their influence on carotenoid metabolism). These data suggest that the eventual deposition of macular pigment in the retina is complex and probably is influenced by a number of variables.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

One size fits all: implications for assessing dietary behavior.

Accurate assessment of dietary behavior is central to the design, implementation, and evaluation of intervention programs aimed at behavior change, and use of an Eating Behaviors Questionnaire (EBQ) has been suggested for measuring dimensions of dietary fat behavior. The EBQ has proven useful in characterizing fat-related dietary patterns among middle-class, highly educated, highly motivated white women. To investigate the generalizability of the instrument, we provide findings from a community-based sample of 235 African-Americans in Maywood, Illinois, a middle-class working community outside Chicago. The sample consisted of 159 women and 76 men with an average age of 47.4 +/- 13.8 years for women and 48.1 +/- 12.1 years for men (mean +/- standard deviation; range, 18 to 87 years). The EBQ is based on four broad behavioral domains (ie, avoidance, modification, substitution, and replacement) associated with fat-related eating patterns. These behavioral domains are composed of specific dietary behaviors (factors). Using a scoring system that allowed all participants to be included in all analyses, we identified a set of factors characterizing eating patterns in our sample that differed from those reported previously. When the factors were converted to scales using unit scoring, the average value suggested a tendency toward a higher fat eating pattern. Results indicate that although behavioral domains appear to be constant across populations, fat-related eating patterns are not. These observations have implications for understanding the diversity of fat-related dietary patterns across groups and for planning appropriate behavior change strategies.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Improving dietary habits in disadvantaged women with HIV/AIDS: the SMART/EST women's project.

There is a lack of information on whether brief nutrition education can succeed in improving longer-term dietary patterns in disadvantaged populations with HIV/AIDS. In the SMART/EST II Women's Project 466 disadvantaged women with HIV/AIDS were randomized to one of four groups and received a two-phase training consisting of a coping skills/stress management and nutrition education provided either in a group or individually. At baseline the majority of participants had excessive fat and sugar consumption and suboptimal intakes of vegetables, fruits, calcium-rich foods and whole grains. Dietary patterns for all participants improved after the nutrition intervention primarily due to decreases in high fat and high sugar foods such as soda and fried foods and were still significantly better 18 months later. There were only short-term differences in improvements between the four groups. These findings support the value of even brief nutrition education for disadvantaged women living with HIV/AIDS.

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome↗
PubMed1977

Effect of income and geographic region on the nutritional value of diets in Brazil.

The nutritional quality of dietary patterns in Brazil was examined as influenced by income level, region, and urbanization by calculating nutrient to calorie ratios and amino acid scores. In general, income level had only a minor influence on diet quality. Riboflavin and calcium were generally low in the low income groups in all regions, especially in urban areas. Thiamin intake was marginal in urban areas at all income levels. Protein quality appeared to be relatively independent of income, with two exceptions. These were the dietary patterns of the lowest income groups in the rural Northeast and the City of Sao Paulo which were somewhat limiting in methionine and lysine, respectively. In contrast, the total availability of calories and protein was greatly dependent on income and the lowest income families were seriously short of food. Income, therefore, appeared to be more important in determining the total amount of food available to a family in Brazil than in affecting the nutritional quality of the diet.

Amino Acids↗
PubMed1997

Olestra, a nonabsorbed, noncaloric replacement for dietary fat: a review.

Olestra has been shown to be safe for its intended use by extensive testing in animals and in humans. It is not digested or absorbed and has no effect on the structure or physiology of the GI tract, the only organ of the body that it contacts. Olestra can interfere with the absorption of other lipophilic substances from the GI tract. The interference occurs because a portion of those molecules that are sufficiently lipophilic partition into the nonabsorbed olestra and is carried out of the body. Whether olestra will interfere with the absorption of a specific molecule can be predicted from the octanol-water partition coefficient of the molecule, a parameter that can be measured or calculated from a knowledge of the structure of the molecule. Olestra does not affect the absorption or efficacy of oral drugs because, in general, they are not sufficiently lipophilic to partition into the olestra. Olestra does not affect the absorption of water-soluble micronutrients or the absorption and utilization of macronutrients. Olestra can reduce the absorption of the fat-soluble vitamins when olestra foods and the vitamins are coingested. These effects can be offset by adding specific amounts of the vitamins to foods made with olestra. Other than the carotenoids and vitamins A and E, olestra does not affect the absorption of potentially beneficial components of fruits and vegetables. The effects on the vitamins can be offset by adding the vitamins to olestra foods. The reduction in the absorption of carotenoids will be less than 6-10% when olestra snacks are eaten under free-living dietary patterns. Any effect this reduction has on vitamin A status can be offset by addition of vitamin A to the foods. The absorption of flavonoids, polyphenols, and most other phytochemicals in fruits and vegetables, which have been shown to provide beneficial health effects, will not be affected by olestra because they are not sufficiently lipophilic. Individuals consuming large quantities of olestra may experience mild or moderate common GI symptoms such as loose or soft stools, gas, or nausea, symptoms similar to those experienced with certain other foods or changed dietary habits. When olestra snack foods are eaten under free-living dietary patterns, the symptoms are not different from those experienced when eating full-fat snack products, in either incidence or severity. When they are experienced, the symptoms resolve in 1-2 days, but may recur. They do not worsen with continued or increased olestra consumption and pose no health risk to the consumer. Olestra products will carry an information label alerting consumers to the possibility of GI symptoms. Olestra foods provide an additional option to those individuals who want or need to lower their total energy intake and body weight. These individuals will find it easier to change dietary habits and to maintain healthful nutritional practices when they use olestra foods. For those who want or need to reduce fat intake but not lose weight, olestra foods can reduce fat intake without affecting energy. Because olestra foods have taste and other organoleptic properties that are similar to those of full-fat foods, individuals will find it easier to switch to low-fat diets.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

A Mediterranean dietary style influences TNF-alpha and VCAM-1 coronary blood levels in unstable angina patients.

BACKGROUND: A Mediterranean dietary pattern has been associated with a reduced risk of coronary heart disease, as well as a reduction of oxidative stress, but studies indicating possible interactions between food intake and inflammatory mediators production at specific sites are lacking. AIM OF THE STUDY: To assess the relationship between Mediterranean diet consumption and inflammatory related molecules production in coronary vessels. METHODS: A previously reported Mediterranean-diet score was computed summing-up the quintiles of eight dietary components from a validated food frequency questionnaire in 24 patients with unstable angina. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF-alpha) and vascular cell adhesion molecule (VCAM-1) concentrations were measured in coronary sinus blood. RESULTS: Both biomarkers showed an inverse association with the Mediterraneandiet score. The association between VCAM-1 and the Mediterranean-diet score had an adjusted beta coefficient of -35.1 ng/ml (95% coefficient interval, CI: -63.5 to -6.7). The adjusted beta coefficient using TNF-alpha as the dependent variable was -41.6 pg/ml (95 % CI: -76.2 to -7.1). The consumption of olive oil as a single item showed a significant inverse association, and a Mediterranean-diet score excluding olive oil was also inversely associated with TNF-alpha and VCAM-1 serum levels in coronary venous blood. CONCLUSIONS: Adherence to a Mediterranean dietary pattern may protect against coronary artery wall production of inflammatory mediators. This finding could provide a novel mechanistic explanation for the recognized lower coronary risk associated with a Mediterranean diet.

Angina, Unstable↗
PubMed2007

Predictors and dietary consequences of frequent intake of high-sugar, low-nutrient foods in 1-year-old children participating in the ABIS study.

Foods rich in sugar have been suggested to contribute to the increasing prevalence of obesity in children. The aim of this report is to investigate the dietary pattern in 1-year-old children who frequently receive foods rich in sugar but low in nutrients and to study associated demographic and parental factors. During 1977-9, 21,700 infants were invited to participate in this prospective, population-based, longitudinal cohort study. Screening questionnaires were completed for 16,070 infants after delivery. Follow-up questionnaires from 10,762 children at 1 year of age are included in the analysis. It was found that 24% of the children received sweets/pastries more often than one or two times per week. They had a higher intake of French fries, potato crisps and cream as well as a lower intake of fruit and vegetables. A frequent intake of sugar-rich, low-nutrient foods was significantly associated with several maternal factors (high intake of sweets/pastries during pregnancy, young age, mother living alone) as well as presence of older siblings. Maternal smoking during pregnancy and maternal overweight were of borderline significance. Parental education level was inversely associated with the frequency of intake of sweets/pastries in the child. Children who frequently receive sweets/pastries also have an otherwise unfavourable dietary pattern. Several parental and demographic factors were associated with this feeding pattern, especially high intake of sweets/pastries during pregnancy. Screening of pregnant women for risk predictors like consumption of sweets/pastries, young age and smoking could be possible ways of identifying children at future risk for low dietary quality.

Beverages↗
PubMed2000

[Changes in composition and appropriate nutrition of family diet in the metropolitan areas of Brazil (1988-1996)].

OBJECTIVE: A new family budget survey carried out in the mid-nineties in Brazil allows an update of the secular trends (1962-1988) of dietary patterns of Brazilian population living in metropolitan areas. METHODS: Data sources are IBGE Institute of Statistics family budget surveys carried out from March 1987 to February 1988 (13,611 households) and from October 1995 to September 1996 (16,014 households) in all metropolitan areas of Brazil. The daily food availability per capita for each household was calculated dividing the total food acquired in a month by the number of individuals living in a household and the month's number of days. Dietary patterns were characterized according to the amount of selected food groups and nutrients relative to the diet caloric input. Comparisons between the two surveys included the metropolitan area population as a whole and subgroups from less (North and Northeast) and more developed (Mid-west, Southeast and South) regions. RESULTS: It was observed an increase in consumption of meat and dairy products (except for butter) and a reduction in eggs consumption in both less and more developed regions. Beans, roots and tubers consumption showed a steady decline in the whole country while cereals consumption remained the same (higher in developed regions) or had a slight increase (in less developed regions). The proportional consumption of vegetal oils and margarine remained constant in the less developed regions but their consumption was greatly reduced in the more developed ones. CONCLUSIONS: An increase in the diet's lipid content in less developed regions and of saturated fat in the country as a whole, associated with a decrease or even no consumption of beans, vegetables, fruits and complex carbohydrates, and a further increase in the excessive sugar consumption are the negative aspects of the trend observed from 1988 to 1996. Changes that may indicate a growing awareness of the population toward a healthier diet, such as a decline in egg intake and a slight reduction in diets with a high total lipid content, were found only in more developed regions.

Brazil↗
PubMed2005

Epidemiology of leisure-time physical activity in socio-demographic, lifestyle and psychological characteristics of men and women in Greece: the ATTICA Study.

BACKGROUND: We aimed to evaluate the prevalence, frequency and type of leisure-time physical activity (LTPA) among adults in Greece, as well as its relationship with socio-demographic, lifestyle and clinical characteristics of these people. METHODS: From May 2001 to December 2002 we randomly enrolled 1514 men and 1528 women, without any evidence of cardiovascular or any other chronic disease. The sampling was stratified by the age-gender distribution of (census 2001) of the greater area of Athens. Weekly energy expenditure assessed by considering frequency, duration (in minutes) and intensity of sports related physical activity during a usual week. RESULTS: 53% of men and 48% of women were classified as physically active. Men were more likely to be active as compared to women (p < 0.05), while the lowest activity rates were observed in 40 to 49 years old participants (p < 0.01). Physically active people had higher occupation skills, were more likely to live in rural areas, to be unmarried, non smokers and they were devoted to a healthier dietary pattern, as compared to sedentary, irrespective of age and sex (all p < 0.05). In addition, the cumulative risk factors score of obesity, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia and diabetes, was inversely associated with activity status (p < 0.001). Finally, physically active men and women were less likely to report depressive symptoms (p < 0.01), after various adjustments were made. CONCLUSION: Half of the studied population reported physically inactive, indicating that sedentary lifestyle becomes a serious epidemic in Greece. High occupation skills, non-smoking, devotion to a healthier dietary pattern and a better cardiovascular risk factors profile were some of the determinants of physically active people.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

The traditional diet of Greece and cancer.

The term 'Mediterranean diet', implying that all Mediterranean people have the same diet, is a misnomer. The countries around the Mediterranean basin have different diets, religions and cultures. Their diets differ in the amount of total fat, olive oil, type of meat, wine, milk, cheese, fruits and vegetables; and the rates of coronary heart disease and cancer, with the lower death rates and longer life expectancy occurring in Greece. The diet of Crete represents the traditional diet of Greece prior to 1960. Analyses of the dietary pattern of the diet of Crete shows a number of protective substances, such as selenium, glutathione, a balanced ratio of n-6/n-3 essential fatty acids (EFA), high amounts of fibre, antioxidants (especially resveratrol from wine and polyphenols from olive oil), vitamins E and C, some of which have been shown to be associated with lower risk of cancer, including cancer of the breast. Epidemiological studies and animal experiments indicate that n-3 fatty acids exert protective effects against some common cancers, especially cancers of the breast, colon and prostate. Many mechanisms are involved, including suppression of neoplastic transformation, cell growth inhibition, and enhanced apoptosis and anti-angiogenicity, through the inhibition of eicosanoid production from n-6 fatty acids; and suppression of cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2), interleukin 1 (IL-1) and IL-6 gene expression by n-3 fatty acids. Recent intervention studies in breast cancer patients indicate that n-3 fatty acids, and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in particular, increase the response to chemopreventive agents. In patients with colorectal cancer, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and DHA decrease cell proliferation, and modulate favourably the balance between colonic cell proliferation and apoptosis. These findings should serve as a strong incentive for the initiation of intervention trials that will test the effect of specific dietary patterns in the prevention and management of patients with cancer.

Antioxidants↗
PubMed2003

Vegetable and fruit: the evidence in their favour and the public health perspective.

There is strong evidence that the intake of vegetables and fruits reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and is inversely associated with several forms of cancer. In contrast, information concerning specific macro- or micronutrients in relation to chronic diseases is limited and largely inconclusive. The beneficial role of vegetable and fruit consumption can also be inferred by considering the health effects of two dietary patterns, the Mediterranean and Japanese ones, in both of which the consumption of plant foods holds a prominent position. Time-trend data, retrieved from the DAFNE databank on the vegetable and fruit availability in four European countries (Greece, Ireland, Italy and Norway) indicate that, during the last decade, fruit availability decreased in Greece and Italy and increased in Ireland and Norway, whereas vegetable availability decreased only in Italy. In Greece, Italy and Norway, the daily fruit availability was higher than that of vegetables, a dietary pattern not in accordance to recommendations for higher vegetable consumption. This information, which is crucial for nutrition policies and health education, also demonstrates the value of the DAFNE surveillance system.

Cardiovascular Diseases↗
PubMed1991

[Comparative evaluation of nutrition of healthy persons, patients with the preclinical stage of ischemic heart disease and in patients with marked coronary disease].

A total of 92 males aged 28 to 55 years were examined. These included 28 apparently healthy individuals, 45 subjects with preclinical coronary heart disease and 19 patients with Functional Class I-II coronary heart disease. A special questionnaire was used to examine the dietary patterns of the subjects with preclinical coronary heart disease, i.e. those having no typical clinical signs of the disease, but showing signs of myocardial infarction during the maximum exercise testing and minimal coronary arterial changes at selective coronary angiography. The subjects, unlike healthy individuals and CHD patients, were found to have 1 or 2 meals a day, frequently late at night, consume large amounts of sugar and other candies, fatty milk products, butter, eggs; small quantities of vegetables, fruits, and fish, often put additional amounts of salt to their diet. The subjects, as patients with severe CHD but unlike healthy individuals, were shown to have hypercholesterolemia and display high low density lipoprotein and apo-lipoprotein B levels; apo B/apo A being more than 1. The above dietary patterns of subjects with preclinical CHD represent one of the causes of abnormal changes in the blood lipid profile, which result in further CHD development.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Effects of ethnicity, family income, and education on dietary intake among adolescents.

BACKGROUND: The aim of the study is to describe the overall diet and potential effects of gender, ethnicity, family income, and parents' education on dietary patterns in adolescents aged 11 to 20 years who participated in a cohort study in 12 Southern California communities. METHODS: A validated 131-item youth/adolescent food frequency questionnaire was administrated among 3,201 participants in the Children's Health Study at follow-up visits between 1998 and 2000. Sociodemographic characteristics included ethnicity, family income, and parents' education. Stratified analysis and analysis of covariance were used to describe the intakes of selected nutrients and food groups. RESULTS: Mean intakes for all nutrients except calcium met 100% of the Recommended Dietary Allowances. Average daily food intakes were below the minimum recommended number of servings for all major food groups. The majority of subjects had an excessive intake of added sugar. A gender difference was found in intakes of energy, total fat (TF), saturated fat (SF), monounsaturated fat (MUSF), and calcium (P < 0.05). Non-Hispanic Whites had the lowest intakes of fruits while Blacks and Asians had significantly higher intakes of vegetables (P < 0.05). Subjects from higher income families had significantly higher intakes of polyunsaturated fat, protein, calcium, and folate and more frequently consumed dairy products. Intakes of TF, SF, MUSF, and cholesterol decreased as parents' education levels increased. Subjects from families with parents who had higher educational attainment were more likely to meet the recommendations of dairy products, fruits, and vegetables. CONCLUSION: Overall, subjects in our study did not have healthy eating habits. Dietary patterns varied by sex, ethnicity, income, and education.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1995

Nutrition guidance by primary-care physicians: perceived barriers and low involvement.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the activities of general practitioners (GPs) in nutritional matters and the factors that influence their attitudes, knowledge and behaviour, especially perceived barriers. DESIGN: Postal questionnaires (result of focus group discussions and in-depth interviews) were sent to a nationwide random sample of GPs in the Netherlands. SUBJECTS: 1000 GPs, in practice for between 5 and 15 years. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The identification of GPs' perceived barriers to nutritional guidance of their patients, their nutritional attitudes and behaviours. RESULTS: Net response rate was 64% (633/990). GPs perceived smoking to be the greatest health hazard, followed by dietary pattern and genome. 70% expressed considerable interest in the role of nutrition in health. In daily practice nutrition plays a minor role in the work of the GP. 28% of GPs gave daily nutrition information to about 10% of their patients and 48% to about 5% of their patients. It is found that GPs do perceive strong barriers of being involved in nutrition issues during their practice. The most important barriers expressed were: not being trained in nutrition, lack of time to address nutrition issues and the perception that patients lack motivation to change lifestyle and/or dietary patterns. CONCLUSIONS: The involvement of GPs in nutritional matters is very low. The fact that lack of training is considered as the most important barrier is, however, unexpected. This finding offers possibilities for improvement in which in-service courses and inter-active distant-learning programmes on nutrition for GPs should get special attention.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Patterns of dietary fluoride supplement use in children from birth to 96 months of age.

OBJECTIVE: This paper reports on fluoride supplement use from birth to age 96 months. METHODS: As part of the Iowa Fluoride Study, questionnaires were mailed at 3 to 6- month intervals assessing use of supplements. Estimated fluoride intake from supplements was calculated as a daily fluoride intake in mg. Analyses include descriptive statistics of supplements use for individual periods, area-under-the-curve (AUC) for combined periods, and associations between fluoride supplement use and demographic covariates. RESULTS: Participants (n=1,388) were mostly white, with about two-thirds of parents having some college education. Percentages using fluoride supplements were 11.2% (12 months), 6.3% to 6.8% (24, 36, 48 and 60 months) and 3.6% to 4.7% (72, 84 and 96 months). Physicians prescribed most supplements until age three. The mean supplement dosage when used gradually increased from 0.25 mg (12 months) to 0.82 mg (84 months) and 0.75 mg (96 months). The effective mean daily fluoride supplement quantities ingested among users for the successive age groups from 12 to 96 months old were 0.14, 0.14, 0.25, 0.34, 0.37, 0.43, 0.48, and 0.37 mg, respectively. Estimated daily average fluoride ingested from supplements increased from 0.06 mg (birth-12 months) to 0.07 mg (12-60 months) to 0.18 mg (60-96 months). CONCLUSION: Fluoride supplement use patterns varied substantially among individuals; however, average use within the intervals birth-12 months, 12-60 months, and 60-96 months was fairly consistent.

Adolescent↗