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PubMed1998

Dissociation of consummatory and vocal components of feeding in squirrel monkeys treated with benzodiazepines and alcohol.

The primary aim of the current experiments was to develop methods that engender vocalizations associated with positive social situations comprising affiliative behavior and feeding that could be quantified under controlled laboratory conditions and were sensitive to anxiolytic drugs. Classical conditioning procedures were used to elicit vocalizations during presentation of stimulus lights (i.e., CS condition) previously paired with either preferred foods (e.g., grapes, peanuts, bananas) or standard foods (e.g., monkey chow) as well as during presentation of both food types (i.e., UCS condition). When compared to the period before stimulus light presentation (i.e., Pre-CS condition), the rate, duration and number of elemental units of food-related "twitter" vocalizations were increased during the CS conditions regardless of food type. Monkeys spent significantly more time oriented toward the food box during the light stimulus that preceded preferred food than for the light stimulus that preceded standard food. However, twitter vocalizations were higher for standard food regardless of the stimulus conditions (i.e., Pre-CS, CS and UCS). Administration of the benzodiazepine full agonist chlordiazepoxide (CDP, 1-10 mg/kg), the partial agonist bretazenil (BRZ, 1-10 mg/kg), the antagonist flumazenil (FLZ, 1-10 mg/kg) and ethyl alcohol (EtOH, 0.1-1.0 g/kg) differentially altered vocalizations. Although CDP and BRZ increased feeding of standard food, twitters were reduced across stimulus conditions. CDP and BRZ did not alter other social contact calls (i.e., "peeps"). FLZ also reduced twitters without altering peeps, but did not increase feeding. In contrast, EtOH did not increase feeding or peeps, but did increase food-related twitters. These results indicate that there is a dissociation between food-related behaviors, such as food consumption and orientation towards the food source, and vocal behaviors associated with group communication during feeding.

Animals↗

PubMed1993

Sensitivity to dopamine blocking in rat licking behavior: function of taste stimuli, response difficulty, and response measures.

The behavioral circumstances determining the efficacy of DA blocking was studied by observing the effects of pimozide, tastes and effort required to ingest liquid on consummatory licking responses. The microstructure of ingestive behavior was obtained to delineate differential behavioral adjustments. Twelve water-deprived rats were trained to lick water, 2.00% sucrose, and 0.01% quinine from a spout located either at a down position of 7 cm above (low effort) or an up position of 24 cm above the floor (high effort). They were injected with pimozide (0.25 mg/kg, ip) or its vehicle and licking responses were observed. Results indicated that the pimozide effect was dependent on tastes and positions as well as the behavioral aspects observed. Pimozide affected ingestion of quinine in many ways, but did not affect that of sucrose solution. The position affected ingestion of quinine in more ways than that of sucrose solution. The taste effect of quinine was more complex than that of sucrose. The complex behavioral adjustment to the reduced incentive support with quinine probably rendered the behavior vulnerable to interference by DA blocking and effort requirement.

Animals↗

PubMed2006

Effects of housing on consummatory successive negative contrast in rats: wire-bottom cages versus polycarbonate tubs.

In consummatory successive negative contrast, rats that have had experience drinking 32% sucrose solution drink significantly less 4% sucrose solution than rats that have drunk only 4% solution. This contrast effect occurs reliably when rats are housed in wire-bottom cages, but it occurs significantly less frequently when rats are housed in polycarbonate tubs. Although it is unclear what causes these differences among housing conditions, the present study underscores the impact that housing conditions outside the domain of the training environment can have on behavioral outcomes.

Animal Husbandry↗

PubMed2004

Incentive-elicited brain activation in adolescents: similarities and differences from young adults.

Brain motivational circuitry in human adolescence is poorly characterized. One theory holds that risky behavior in adolescence results in part from a relatively overactive ventral striatal (VS) motivational circuit that readily energizes approach toward salient appetitive cues. However, other evidence fosters a theory that this circuit is developmentally underactive, in which adolescents approach more robust incentives (such as risk taking or drug experimentation) to recruit this circuitry. To help resolve this, we compared brain activation in 12 adolescents (12-17 years of age) and 12 young adults (22-28 years of age) while they anticipated the opportunity to respond to obtain monetary gains as well as to avoid monetary losses. In both age groups, anticipation of potential gain activated portions of the VS, right insula, dorsal thalamus, and dorsal midbrain, where the magnitude of VS activation was sensitive to gain amount. Notification of gain outcomes (in contrast with missed gains) activated the mesial frontal cortex (mFC). Across all subjects, signal increase in the right nucleus accumbens during anticipation of responding for large gains independently correlated with both age and self-rated excitement about the high gain cue. In direct comparison, adolescents evidenced less recruitment of the right VS and right-extended amygdala while anticipating responding for gains (in contrast with anticipation of nongains) compared with young adults. However, brain activation after gain outcomes did not appreciably differ between age groups. These results suggest that adolescents selectively show reduced recruitment of motivational but not consummatory components of reward-directed behavior.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1976

Spontaneous and centrally induced behaviors in normal and thalamic opossums.

Electrical stimulation of localized areas of the opossum medulla and cerebellum induced goal-oriented eating and grooming behaviors of stereotyped gagging. Following radical telencephalic lesions, these animals showed considerable behavioral capacity and in many cases continued to demonstrate centrally induced responses. Animals with lesions, however, failed to groom or show active food-seeking behavior, and they showed poor thermoregulation in the heat, presumably because of the loss of thermoregulatory grooming. These deficits following removal of the telencephalon appear to have resulted from disruption of important sources of control over behaviors rather than from loss of basic consummatory response mechanisms, since grooming and eating, while less directed, could still be elicited by central stimulation. These results support the view that the lower brain stem may contain intrinsic neural circuits for the integration of complex behaviors.

Agonistic Behavior↗

PubMed1998

Basal forebrain cholinergic lesions enhance conditioned approach responses to stimuli predictive of food.

This study examined the effects of lesions to different neuronal populations within the basal forebrain on reward-related learning. Rats received bilateral alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid (AMPA) or quinolinate lesions that preferentially destroy the cholinergic nucleus basalis magnocellularis (NBM) or noncholinergic ventral pallidal neurons, respectively. Both lesions enhanced conditioned approach responses to stimuli predictive of food but did not increase the locomotor stimulating effect of d-amphetamine. Although both lesions disrupted the discriminative control over behavior by a conditioned stimulus, they did not impair the subsequent acquisition of instrumental responding with conditioned reinforcement (CR). Indeed, both lesions were associated with an increased responding with CR following intra-accumbens infusions of d-amphetamine (0, 1, 3, 10, and 20 microg). Quinolinate lesions also increased responses on an inactive control lever. Neither lesion altered consummatory responses to food or sucrose. Results suggest that NBM lesions may disrupt the balance between cortical and subcortical dopamine levels, and/or produce a deficit in attentional mechanisms that is manifested as increased responding to specific stimuli.

Amphetamine↗

PubMed1998

A peptidergic basis for sexual behavior in mammals.

Vasopressin (VP) is a peptide neurotransmitter in the limbic system of rats. It is synthesized in the medial amygdaloid nucleus in the presence of sex steroids, transported to other limbic structures such as the hippocampus and septum and secreted there by a calcium-dependent process. In the hippocampus, VP acts on cerebral microvessels and local circuit interneurons. Its excitatory action on the inhibitory interneurons produces near-total shutdown of electrical activity of the efferent fibers of pyramidal cells, the projection neurons of the hippocampus. Stimulation of the medial amygdala and release of the endogenous VP duplicates these effects and, since they are blocked by ventricular application of a VP antagonist, the effects are almost certainly mediated by endogenous VP. Recording from the VP-containing cell bodies or of the hippocampal action of the peptide indicates that the system is selectively involved with the early stages of sexual behavior, specifically those appetitive behaviors that anticipate coitus. Stimulation of the VP cells produces alterations in sexual behavior in a manner consistent with the hypothesis that the medial amygdala organizes the appetitive phase of recognition of an appropriate partner and sexual arousal. This role for the medial amygdala complements the proposed role of nearby structures in the consummatory, reward and learned aspects of sexual behavior. Association between VP, oxytocin (OT) and homologs with sexual behavior is very widespread among vertebrates, including amphibians, reptiles, primates and humans. Humans and other primates display a phenomenon called 'concealed ovulation' that may have played a role in the evolution of social structures. The review concludes with a discussion of possible experimental strategies for evaluating the possible role of VP in concealed ovulation and other conditions in which sexual behavior occurs outside of estrus.

Animals↗

PubMed1992

Suppression of sucrose drinking by chronic mild unpredictable stress: a methodological analysis.

Previous studies have demonstrated that chronic exposure of rats to a melange of ultra-mild stressors causes an antidepressant-reversible decrease in the intake of palatable weak sucrose solutions, as well as other evidence of insensitivity to rewards. In the present study, we analyzed some of the behavioral requirements for the suppression of consummatory behaviour by chronic mild stress. Rats exposed to our standard chronic mild stress protocol and tested following 20 h food and water deprivation showed a decrease in intake of 1% sucrose, but not of water or chow. The effect on sucrose intake was also present, but smaller, in non-deprived animals, and wa seen in both singly- and pair-housed animals. Experiments designed to identify the crucial elements of the stress procedure showed that one element, paired housing (in animals normally housed singly) was particularly potent. However, no one element was either necessary to cause the decrease in sucrose intake, or sufficient to maintain the impairment for longer than 4 weeks: Variety and frequency of microstressors appeared to be the essential features of procedures causing a prolonged anhedonia.

Adrenal Glands↗

PubMed1985

Pharmacological manipulations of the nucleus accumbens: effects on classically conditioned responses and locomotor activity in the cat.

Agonists and antagonists of dopamine, acetylcholine, and glutamate were injected bilaterally into the nucleus accumbens in 5 adult cats, and their effects on classically conditioned responses and locomotor activity were observed. Dopamine reduced conditioned consummatory responses (leg flexion and vocalization) and conditioned changes in respiration rate, but did not affect other conditioned preparatory responses (changes in heart rate and respiration amplitude). The cholinergic agonist oxotremorine reduced both conditioned and unconditioned leg flexion. The glutamatergic agonist and antagonist had no effect on any of the conditioned responses. All drugs except haloperidol increased the cats locomotor activity in an open field setting. The results suggest that dopaminergic input to the nucleus accumbens is involved in the inhibition of consummatory conditioned responses, and that the behavioral effect of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens might be dependent on the emotional state of the animal.

Animals↗

PubMed1976

The effect of conditioned stimuli signalling food upon the autochthonous instrumental responses in dogs.

Food CSs, presented (i) concomitantly with SD controlling bar pressing for food, or (ii) on the background of non-discriminated bar pressing (FR 1/15), suppress instrumental performance but elicit undiminished conditioned salivation. This result supports Soltysik-Konorski's model of CNS mechanism controlling food-oriented behavior which postulates drive inhibition by taste-consummatory neurons.

Animals↗

PubMed2003

State-dependent modulation of feeding behavior by proopiomelanocortin-derived beta-endorphin.

Feeding behavior can be divided into appetitive and consummatory phases, differing in neural substrates and effects of deprivation. Opioids play an important role in the appetitive aspects of feeding, but they also have acute stimulatory effects on food consumption. Because the opioid peptide beta-endorphin is co-synthesized and released with melanocortins from proopiomelanocortin (POMC) neuronal terminals, we examined the physiological role of beta-endorphin in feeding and energy homeostasis using a strain of mutant mice with a selective deficiency of beta-endorphin. Male beta-endorphin-deficient mice unexpectedly became obese with ad libitum access to rodent chow. Total body weight increased by 15% with a 50-100% increase in the mass of white fat. The mice were hyperphagic with a normal metabolic rate. Despite the absence of endogenous beta-endorphin, the mutant mice did not differ from wild-type mice in their acute feeding responses to beta-endorphin or neuropeptide Y administered intracerebroventricularly or naloxone administered intraperitoneally. Additional mice were studied using an operant behavioral paradigm to examine their acquisition of food reinforcers under increasing work demands. Food-deprived, beta-endorphin-deficient male mice emitted the same number of lever presses under a progressive ratio schedule compared to wild-type mice. However, the mutant mice worked significantly less than did the wild-type mice for food reinforcers under nondeprived conditions. Controls for nonspecific effects on acquisition of conditioned learning, activity, satiety, and resistance to extinction revealed no genotype differences, supporting our interpretation that beta-endorphin selectively affects a motivational component of reward behavior under nondeprived conditions. Therefore, we propose that beta-endorphin may function in at least two primary modes to modulate feeding. In the appetitive phase, beta-endorphin release increases the incentive value of food as a primary reinforcer. In contrast, it appears that endogenous beta-endorphin may inhibit food consumption in parallel with melanocortins and that the orexigenic properties previously ascribed to it may actually be due to other classes of endogenous opioid peptides.

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone↗

PubMed2006

FG 7142 specifically reduces meal size and the rate and regularity of sustained feeding in female rats: evidence that benzodiazepine inverse agonists reduce food palatability.

Benzodiazepine receptor inverse agonists reduce food intake in males, but their actions in females, in whom stress-related eating disorders are more common, as well as their behavioral mode of action remain unclear. The consummatory effects of benzodiazepine receptor ligands have alternately been hypothesized to reflect changes in the hedonic evaluation of food or secondary effects of anxiety-related or cognitive properties. To test the anorectic mode of action of benzodiazepine inverse agonists, the effects of FG 7142 on feeding microstructure were studied in nondeprived female Wistar rats (n=32). Microstructure analysis used a novel meal definition that recognizes prandial drinking. On pharmacologically synchronized diestrus I, rats were pretreated (-30 min dark onset) with the benzodiazepine partial inverse agonist FG 7142 (i.p. 0, 3.75, 7.5, 15 mg/kg) in a between-subjects design. FG 7142 delayed the onset of (16-541%), decreased the amount eaten (36-52%) and drunk (63-87%), and reduced the time spent drinking (59-87%) within the first nocturnal meal. Dose-dependent incremental anorexia continued 6 h into the dark cycle, whereas FG 7142 did not suppress the quantity, duration or rate of drinking past the first meal. Treated rats ate smaller meals (17-42%) of normal duration. This reflected that FG 7142 slowed feeding within meals (9-38%) by decreasing the regularity and maintenance of feeding from pellet-to-pellet. FG 7142 did not influence postprandial satiety; meal frequency and inter-meal intervals were unaffected. FG 7142 anorexia was blocked by the benzodiazepine receptor antagonist flumazenil in a 2:1 molar ratio (n=17 rats). The very early, nonspecific (+10 min), but not subsequent (2.5, 4.5 h) feeding-specific phase, of FG 7142 anorexia was mirrored by anxiogenic-like behavior in FG 7142-treated (7.5 mg/kg) female rats (n=48) in the elevated plus-maze. Thus, benzodiazepine receptor inverse agonists preferentially lessen the maintenance of feeding in female rats, effects opposite to those of palatable food.

Animals↗

PubMed1990

Differential control of operant and consummatory licking in rats.

The failure of rats to optimize their behavior when drinking from two retractable spouts available for single licks was analyzed. The rats were trained in an apparatus where the contacted spout was withdrawn after completion of a lick and the other spout was presented. After 5 days of such forced spout alternation training the animals continued to emit 2.7 instead of the optimum 1.0 lick per spout presentation (LPSP). With water available in one spout only the average LPSP at the empty spout dropped to 1.2 and increased to 3.6 at the water containing spout. It is argued that the operant licks at the dry spout approach the ideal value of 1.0 LPSP whereas the number of LPSPs at the water spout is increased by the consummatory nature of licking triggered by the presence of water in the oral cavity.

Animals↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Lead and conditioned fear to contextual and discrete cues.

Male Fischer 344 rats received either tap water or water containing 250 ppm lead for 90 days prior to training in either Pavlovian fear conditioning or consummatory contrast, an aversive reward reduction paradigm. In Experiment 1, lead-exposed and -unexposed rats were trained in operant chambers over a 6-min session. After 3 min elapsed, three tone-shock pairings were presented over the remainder of the session. Rats then received 7 days of extinction training in an identical procedure with only tones presented, no shocks. Lead-exposed rats exhibited greater behavioral suppression to both the contextual and auditory cues that predicted shock. In Experiment 2, rats were placed in operant chambers daily and allowed to consume either a 15% or a 5% fructose solution for 7 days. On Day 8, the rats consuming the 15% fructose solution were shifted to the 5% solution for 3 days. Lead-exposed rats did not differ from their controls in either initial consumption of either solution or in the suppression of their consumption after shifting to the 5% solution. Taken together, these findings suggest that lead impairs the extinction of fear conditioning and this finding is not due to a nonspecific increase in aversive emotionality.

Acoustic Stimulation↗

PubMedDate not supplied

[The regulation of food consumption (the ontogenetic aspects)].

The present-day concepts of organizing the physiologic system of food consumption control at different stages of ontogenesis of the premature born mammals are discussed with an element of criticism. The "alimentary center" notion as a multilevel system of the perceptive neurons lost its original significance and needs improvement. An idea of hypothalamic alimentary centers also needs revision to match the recent detection of many brain structures which are associated with the development of hunger and repletion states. There is no strong evidence of a direct involvement of central reception of metabolic products in an immediate control of the alimentary behavior. The hunger and repletion theories each only in part explain the physiologic basis of these states. The alimentary behavior is an integrated process not coming to a consummatory act. It relates to a complex interaction of afferent and efferent systems which are different at various stages of ontogenesis. In an early period of life the regulation of alimentary behavior depends mainly on the sensory signals and only gradually it incorporates the metabolic canal of signalling. A delay in the repletion mechanisms provides the optimal conditions for the growth and development of organism. The formation of alimentary stereotypes on the basis of specific and nonspecific factors is described. Regulation of different aspects of alimentary behavior depends finally on their relation to the state of brain systems of reward and punishment.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

Breakpoint determination and ethanol self-administration using an across-session progressive ratio procedure in the rat.

BACKGROUND: Progressive ratio schedules are used to determine the "breakpoint" or limit to the amount of "work" that a subject is willing to perform to obtain a reinforcer. Reinforcing efficacy is inferred from the breakpoint values, which are typically measured in a single session by increasing the number of responses required for successive reinforcer presentations. This procedure is not feasible, however, when assessing the reinforcing efficacy of a substance that can change as a function of its physiological actions during self-administration, as in the case of ethanol. METHODS: The present study made use of a procedure that increased the response requirement across single daily sessions rather than within a session. Completion of the response requirement in each daily session resulted in the presentation of a drinking tube that allowed for self-administration of ethanol for a 20-min period. This procedure made possible the assessment of ethanol-directed appetitive (number of lever presses) and consummatory (number of licks and intake volume) behaviors. Reliable responding for 10% ethanol was initiated using sucrose-substitution on a fixed ratio (FR) 4 schedule in male Long Evans rats. Then four successive breakpoint determinations were made which were separated by a return to the FR4 schedule to re-establish baseline responding. RESULTS: The results indicated that there was an increase in breakpoint values from the first to the second determination, which was then stable over the following three determinations. Individual rats reached breakpoints as high as 240 lever presses to receive access to 10% ethanol and maintained ethanol intake over sessions in the 1.0 g/kg range. Ethanol intake (g/kg), however, was stable across all four determinations (mean 0.86 +/- 0.06 to 1.01 +/- 0.10). Moreover, ethanol intake was not related to the preceding appetitive responding, as no differences between intake on the session before a breakpoint (high FR) and the following baseline period (FR4) were observed. CONCLUSIONS: This model provides an assessment of the distinct mechanisms that mediate ethanol-seeking versus ethanol consumption in subjects that drink measurable amounts of ethanol, with the appetitive behaviors not altered by the pharmacological effects of ethanol.

Alcohol Drinking↗

PubMedDate not supplied

The neural basis of motivated behavior.

A complete motivated or goal-oriented behavioral act can be viewed as consisting of initiation, procurement, and consummatory phases. In order to gain some insight into the organizing principles of neural circuitry that underlies the expression of motivated behavior, certain basic pathways thought to play an important role in two specific classes of such behavior, hypovolemic thirst and reproductive behavior, are reviewed. In both cases, humoral factors participate in the initiation phase, and their sites of action have been rather clearly defined. Circuitry underlying the procurement phase, which involves foraging behavior, is much more complex, but can be thought of as involving two fundamentally different systems, one concerned with the processing of specific sensory information and the production of refined motor responses, and the other concerned with modulating behavioral state. The former is associated primarily with the thalamocortical-lateral forebrain system whereas the latter is associated primarily with the medial forebrain system. Finally, evidence favoring the hypothesis that "biochemical switching" may take place in fixed neuroanatomical circuitry associated with ingestive and reproductive behaviors is reviewed.

Angiotensin II↗

PubMed1998

Modifications of testosterone-dependent behaviors by estrogen receptor-alpha gene disruption in male mice.

The role of the a form of estrogen receptor (ER alpha) gene expression in the regulation of testosterone-dependent male reproductive behaviors was investigated using ER knockout mice (ERKO), which are specifically deficient in functional ER alpha, but not ER beta, gene expression. Previous studies in gonadally intact ERKO mice revealed that male aggressive behavior was greatly reduced by the lack of a functional ER alpha gene. In the present study the almost complete suppression of male-typical offensive attacks was further confirmed in ERKO mice that had been singly housed since weaning. Regarding aggression, it was also found that ER alpha gene disruption virtually abolished the propensity to initiate offensive attacks, even though ERKO mice could elicit attacks from resident C57BL/6J mice as wild-type (WT) and heterozygous littermates. Daily injection of testosterone propionate (TP) was completely ineffective in inducing aggressive behavior in gonadectomized ERKO mice, whereas it successfully restored aggression in WT mice. In contrast, male sexual behaviors, mounts and intromissions, were induced by daily injection of TP in both gonadectomized ERKO and WT mice. In addition to TP, dihydrotestosterone propionate (DHTP) was also effective in restoring mounts in ERKO mice, although DHTP was much more potent in WT mice than in ERKO mice. Neither TP nor DHTP, however, ever induced ejaculation in ERKO mice. These results together with previous findings in gonadally intact ERKO mice suggest that ER alpha may be responsible for the regulation by testosterone of consummatory, but not motivational, aspects of male sexual behavior. Finally, ERKO male mice retrieved newborn pups placed in their home cage with similar latencies to males of the two other genotypes. During parental behavior tests, however, a higher percentage of ERKO mice (70%) showed infanticide compared with WT mice (35%). The latter result was interpreted as showing that ER alpha activation by testosterone during the perinatal period may exert a suppressive effect on testosterone-inducible infanticide in adulthood. With respect to three major testosterone-dependent behavioral systems reflecting masculinization, these findings demonstrate three different types of effects due to ER alpha gene disruption.

Aggression↗