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PubMed2004

Ordinal process dissociation and the measurement of automatic and controlled processes.

The process-dissociation equations (L. Jacoby, 1991) have been applied to results from inclusion and exclusion tasks to derive quantitative estimates of the influence of controlled and automatic processes on memory. This research has provoked controversies (e.g., T. Curran & D. Hintzman, 1995) regarding the validity of specific assumptions underlying the process-dissociation equations. In this article, the author explores the conclusions one can draw about the ordinal relations between automatic and controlled processes across experimental conditions from results in the inclusion and exclusion tasks. Given relatively neutral assumptions, this article presents and proves 6 theorems that allow investigators to draw conclusions about the ordinal relations between automatic and/or controlled processes across experimental conditions. An illustrative example is presented, and the current approach is compared with the original process-dissociation framework.

Automatism↗
PubMed2004

Automatic keypress activation in skilled typing.

The assumption that letters automatically activate corresponding keypresses in skilled typing was investigated. Participants responded to the color of letters (congruent condition: responding finger was the one usually used to type the letter). Participants skilled in typing showed a congruency effect: unskilled participants did not (Experiment 1). The automatic activation included characteristics of the movement usually performed to type the letters (Experiment 2). Responding with crossed hands on an external response device (Experiment 3) provided evidence for effector-dependent representations only, whereas responding on a keyhoard (Experiment 4) resulted in evidence for effector-dependent and spatial representations. Thus, motoric skill proficiency is accompanied by automatic activation processes that probably contribute to high performance levels.

Automatism↗
PubMed2005

Is handedness recognition automatic? A study using a Simon-like paradigm.

The authors used a modified Simon task (J. R. Simon, 1969) to assess the automatic recognition of handedness. Participants responded to the color of a circle in the center of the photograph of a right or a left hand, displayed in the center of the computer screen. A regular Simon effect was found for back views, whereas a reverse Simon effect was found for palm views. This pattern of results was found when the forearm was present (Experiment 2), when 1 finger at a time was rendered invisible (Experiment 3), and when the hands were connected to a body image (Experiment 4). When the hands were cut at the wrist, no effect emerged (Experiment 1). These findings suggest an automatic encoding of the relative position of the hand in relation to the body (imaginary or real) rather than the automatic encoding of handedness.

Automatism↗
PubMed2006

Reading aloud is not automatic: processing capacity is required to generate a phonological code from print.

The present experiments tested the claim that phonological recoding occurs "automatically" by assessing whether it uses central attention in the context of the psychological refractory period paradigm. Task 1 was a tone discrimination task and Task 2 was reading aloud. The joint effects of long-lag word repetition priming and stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) were underadditive in Experiment 1, suggesting that an early component of lexical processing does not use central attention. In contrast, nonword letter length and grapheme-phoneme complexity yielded additive effects with SOA in Experiments 2, 3, and 4, suggesting that assembled phonology uses central attention. Further, orthographic neighborhood density also yielded additive effects with SOA in Experiments 5, 6, and 7, suggesting that lexical contributions to phonological recoding use central attention. Taken together, the results of these experiments are inconsistent with the widespread claim that phonological codes are assembled and/or addressed automatically. It is suggested that "automaticity" should be replaced by accounts that make more specific claims about how processing unfolds.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed2005

The automaticity of visual statistical learning.

The visual environment contains massive amounts of information involving the relations between objects in space and time, and recent studies of visual statistical learning (VSL) have suggested that this information can be automatically extracted by the visual system. The experiments reported in this article explore the automaticity of VSL in several ways, using both explicit familiarity and implicit response-time measures. The results demonstrate that (a) the input to VSL is gated by selective attention, (b) VSL is nevertheless an implicit process because it operates during a cover task and without awareness of the underlying statistical patterns, and (c) VSL constructs abstracted representations that are then invariant to changes in extraneous surface features. These results fuel the conclusion that VSL both is and is not automatic: It requires attention to select the relevant population of stimuli, but the resulting learning then occurs without intent or awareness.

Attention↗
PubMed2005

Further exploration of controlled and automatic memory processes in early Alzheimer's disease.

The authors' aim in this study was to explore automatic and controlled processes in Alzheimer's disease (AD) by using a variant of the word-stem completion task that applies the process-dissociation procedure. Several methodological precautions were taken in order to limit problems observed in previous studies (e.g., poor task sensitivity, ceiling and/or floor effects, no control over comprehension of instructions). Our results (a) confirmed the marked deterioration in controlled processes and (b) showed that when psychometric constraints were limited, automatic memory processes were preserved in AD. These data are in line with those from more global studies in suggesting that AD is characterized by an early deterioration in controlled processes and an initial preservation of automatic processes.

Aged↗
PubMed2002

Controlled processes and automaticity in memory functioning in fibromyalgia patients: relation with emotional distress and hypervigilance.

Evidence exists that chronic pain partially consumes the limited attentional resources, with the consequence that controlled processes sustaining cognitive tasks are affected and that automatic processes are preserved. Fibromyalgia syndrome is consistently rated as more severe than other chronic painful conditions. It is assumed here that fibromyalgia is more attention-demanding, leading to a more pronounced decrease of the controlled processes in comparison with other chronic painful conditions. In this perspective, Study 1 compares fibromyalgia patients, patients with localized pain and healthy subjects in a procedure separately estimating the within-task contributions of controlled and automatic processes in a cued recall task. As predicted, controlled processes are more strongly affected in fibromyalgia patients related to the group with localized pain. Unexpectedly, contribution of automatic processes is increased in fibromyalgia. Study 2 replicates these results and reveals that memory functioning in fibromyalgia patients is related to their painful condition as a whole rather than to any particular patient's characteristics.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Hypnotic involuntariness and the automaticity of everyday life.

We present a new theory of hypnotic involuntariness based on an integration and extension of recent social and cognitive theories on the automaticity of mundane, intentional behavior. According to this model, experiences of volition and involuntariness-in and out of hypnosis-are constructions or interpretations made possible by the high degree of automaticity that is a characteristic of all complex behavior, including novel behavior. Suggested nonvolitional behaviors are intentional acts that are triggered automatically by situational cues (suggestions) and cue-related sensations. The triggering of both the behaviors and the sensations are enabled by the formation of a generalized response expectancy, which is a cognitive set to respond appropriately to suggestions. Response expectancies are functionally equivalent to implementation intentions taking the form, "emit response x when situation y is encountered." The classification of a response set as either an expectancy or an intention and the experience of the response as volitional or nonvolitional depend on interpretations derived from instructional cues and prior beliefs.

Activities of Daily Living↗
PubMed2001

Automatic word processing: a new forum for hypnotic expression.

Automatic word processing, a form of dissociation utilizing hypnosis and computer technology, was developed to provide patients a forum for hypnotic expression with unique features. Using automatic word processing, the six patients in this report were able to express themselves extensively, edit their responses to queries, and even write poetry while doing hypnosis. Automatic word processing can be used with some patients to gain important insights and therapeutic successes that might not be achieved as easily by other means. Because this is a new technique, much of its potential remains to be defined.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1997

Hypnotizability, the dissociative experiences scale, HGSHS: A amnesia, and automatic writing: is there an association?

The present study examined whether participants (N = 112) selected on the basis of high and low dissociative ability (Dissociative Experiences Scale [DES]; Bernstein & Putnam, 1986), high and low/simulating hypnotizability (Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility, Form A [HGSHS:A]; Shor & Orne, 1962), and past performance on the HGSHS:A amnesia item differentially passed an automatic writing suggestion administered during a follow-up experiment. Results from a loglinear analysis supported a single main effect for hypnotizability. Low hypnotizable, simulating participants were more than six times as likely to pass the automatic writing suggestion than high hypnotizable participants. Results found dissociation status and past performance on an ostensibly dissociative suggestion (i.e., amnesia) to be independent of passing the automatic writing suggestion. Findings are discussed in light of other research regarding the relation between the DES and hypnotizability.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Associative priming in a masked perceptual identification task: evidence for automatic processes.

Two experiments investigated the influence of automatic and strategic processes on associative priming effects in a perceptual identification task in which prime-target pairs are briefly presented and masked. In this paradigm, priming is defined as a higher percentage of correctly identified targets for related pairs than for unrelated pairs. In Experiment 1, priming was obtained for mediated word pairs. This mediated priming effect was affected neither by the presence of direct associations nor by the presentation time of the primes, indicating that automatic priming effects play a role in perceptual identification. Experiment 2 showed that the priming effect was not affected by the proportion (.90 vs. .10) of related pairs if primes were presented briefly to prevent their identification. However, a large proportion effect was found when primes were presented for 1000 ms so that they were clearly visible. These results indicate that priming in a masked perceptual identification task is the result of automatic processes and is not affected by strategies. The present paradigm provides a valuable alternative to more commonly used tasks such as lexical decision.

Association↗
PubMed1999

Automatic priming effects for new associations in lexical decision and perceptual identification.

Information storage in semantic memory was investigated by looking at automatic priming effects for new associations in two experiments. In the study phase, word pairs were presented in a paired-associate learning task. Lexical decision and perceptual identification were used to examine priming effects during and after the study phase. There was automatic priming for new associations. The priming effect was greatly reduced when different semantic tasks were used at study and test compared to when identical tasks were used at study and test. The results show that new associations in semantic memory can be accessed automatically but are still context dependent. This suggests that rather than being abstract and static, retrieval from semantic memory interacts dynamically with the context.

Automatism↗
PubMed1976

Automatisms during frontal lobe epileptic seizures.

Three new cases of automatisms occurring during frontal lobe epileptic seizures are reported. If these cases are added to those already published and adequately described in the literature, a total of 12 cases is obtained. An attempt is made to elucidate the clinical characteristics of automatisms encountered during frontal lobe seizures. This kind of automatism would seem to be clinically distinguishable from other types.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

Automatic mimicry reactions as related to differences in emotional empathy.

The hypotheses of this investigation were derived by conceiving of automatic mimicking as a component of emotional empathy. Differences between subjects high and low in emotional empathy were investigated. The parameters compared were facial mimicry reactions, as represented by electromyographic (EMG) activity when subjects were exposed to pictures of angry or happy faces, and the degree of correspondence between subjects' facial EMG reactions and their self-reported feelings. The comparisons were made at different stimulus exposure times in order to elicit reactions at different levels of information processing. The high-empathy subjects were found to have a higher degree of mimicking behavior than the low-empathy subjects, a difference that emerged at short exposure times (17-40 ms) that represented automatic reactions. The low-empathy subjects tended already at short exposure times (17-40 ms) to show inverse zygomaticus muscle reactions, namely "smiling" when exposed to an angry face. The high-empathy group was characterized by a significantly higher correspondence between facial expressions and self-reported feelings. No differences were found between the high- and low-empathy subjects in their verbally reported feelings when presented a happy or an angry face. Thus, the differences between the groups in emotional empathy appeared to be related to differences in automatic somatic reactions to facial stimuli rather than to differences in their conscious interpretation of the emotional situation.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Genital automatisms: a video-EEG study in patients with medically refractory seizures.

PURPOSE: Genital automatisms (GAs) are rare clinical phenomena during or after epileptic seizures. They are defined as repeated fondling, grabbing, or scratching of the genitals. The anatomic correlates of GAs have been discussed controversially. The aim of this investigation was to assess the localizing and lateralizing value of GAs. METHODS: The authors studied 207 consecutive patients with intractable seizures referred to a University Hospital for presurgical evaluation between 1998 and 2002: 135 had temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE); 23, frontal lobe epilepsy (FLE); 29, generalized epilepsies (GEs); and 20 had extratemporal or multifocal epilepsy. RESULTS: Twenty-three (11%) of 207 patients showed GAs in 42 (3%) of 1,299 seizures. GAs occurred significantly more often in men (17 of 93, 18%) than in women (six of 114, 5%; p = 0.0037). Twenty-one (16%) of 135 patients with TLE performed GAs, one (4%) of 23 with FLE and one (3%) of 29 with GE. GAs were associated with unilateral hand automatisms in 16 (70%) of 23 and with periictal urinary urge in five (22%) of 23. All patients had amnesia for the performance of GAs. CONCLUSIONS: GAs appear in the ictal or postictal period with impaired consciousness. Men exhibit GAs significantly more often than do women. GAs do not localize or lateralize per se, but may localize seizure onset in the presence of periictal urinary urge or unilateral hand automatisms. They show a tendency to occur more often in TLE.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1977

Ictal tonic postural changes and automatisms of the upper limb during epileptic parietal lobe discharges.

Tonic postural changes of the upper limb accompanied by epileptic parietal lobe discharges are not well known. The authors report 3 such cases. In the 3 patients, a total of 18 spontaneous seizures were recorded, 12 by telemetry, from either scalp electrodes or stereotactically implanted electrodes. Of these 18 seizures, 14 included tonic postural changes of the upper limb accompanied by a contralateral parietal discharge. Combining these 3 cases with the 4 such cases in the literature, the authors found that the clinical pattern consisted of a tonic postural change in one upper limb associated with automatisms of the opposite upper limb. It was also found that the same patient might have automatisms involving the upper limb in some seizures and upper limb postural changes in other seizures, both accompanied by the same electrical discharge. It is concluded that tonic postural changes and automatisms in the upper limb may be interchangeable.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Electrophysiology of bimanual-bipedal automatisms.

To determine the localizing value and electrophysiology of bimanual-bipedal automatisms (BBAs), we studied these behaviors in 54 seizures of 8 patients with temporal or frontal lobe seizure onset. BBAs occurred with a frequency of 27% in frontal lobe epilepsy (FLE) and of 7% in temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). The distribution of electrode sites showing ictal activity during these automatisms was significantly different in the two patient groups (0.0001 Chi-square). Mesio- and/or laterotemporal plus orbital frontal areas were involved areas when the behaviors appeared in patients with TLE; dorsolateral and mesiofrontal regions were the most commonly involved when the behaviors occurred during the course of frontal lobe seizures. We concluded that BBAs represent activation of frontal lobe circuitry but are not unique to seizures of frontal lobe origin. Eyelid flutter and repetitive body movements in either the axial or sagittal plane were significantly associated with the frontal lobe group whereas oral-alimentary automatisms were associated with the temporal lobe group. Thus, these associated behaviors may help indicate whether a frontal or temporal lobe seizure onset has occurred when BBAs are observed. A new concept of ictal expression is proposed to conform with the results as well as with other apparently disparate ictal behaviors that may have localizing value.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Spitting automatism in complex partial seizures: a nondominant temporal localizing sign?

PURPOSE: Spitting as an ictal automatism has been rarely reported. We aimed to establish its potential lateralizing and localizing significance. METHODS: Review of patients undergoing surgery for intractable epilepsy at two comprehensive epilepsy centers. RESULTS: Five patients were found who had spitting as a stereotyped automatism of their complex partial seizures. All had evidence of right temporal ictal onset and underwent resective surgery. Two had tumors; one, a cavernous angioma; one, hippocampal gliosis, and one, hippocampal sclerosis. We found no instances of ictal spitting in patients with left hemisphere onset. CONCLUSIONS: Spitting as an automatism in complex partial seizures, although uncommon, may be a localizing sign to the nondominant temporal lobe.

Adult↗