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PubMed1998

The role of social and cognitive processes in children's adjustment to community violence.

This study examined associations of community violence exposure and psychological well-being among 99 8-12 year old children (M = 10.7 years) using home interviews with mothers and children. Both moderators and mediators of the links between violence exposure and well-being were tested. After demographics and concurrent life stressors were controlled for violence exposure was significantly associated with intrusive thinking, anxiety, and depression. Regression analyses indicated that intrusive thinking partially mediated associated between violence exposure and internalizing symptoms. Planned comparisons revealed that violence exposure had the strongest effect on well-being among children with low social support or high levels of social strains. Furthermore, children with high levels of intrusive thinking were most likely to show heightened internalizing symptoms when they had inadequate social support.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Hypersensitivity to social interactions in bulimic syndromes: relationship to binge eating.

This study used a 6- to 22-day experience-sampling procedure to test for hypersensitivity to social interactions in bulimic individuals. Ratings on daily social interactions, self-concepts, moods, and eating behaviors from 55 actively bulimic, 18 formerly bulimic, and 31 noneating-disordered women were obtained. Hierarchical linear modeling analyses showed negative social interactions to be associated with significant increases in self-criticism (SC) and deteriorations in mood in all participants. However, bulimic participants (active or in remission) showed larger increases in SC following negative social interactions than did normal eaters (and thus seemed to be hypersensitive to interpersonal experiences). Additional analyses indicated that binge episodes tended to be preceded by poorer than average social experiences, self-concepts, and moods and followed by deteriorations in self-concept, mood, and social perception. The authors discuss possible perpetuating influences of interpersonal sensitivity in bulimic syndromes.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Pain, negative mood, and perceived support in chronic pain patients: a daily diary study of people with reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome.

Chronic pain patients show substantial psychological distress, including depressed mood, anxiety, and anger. Nevertheless, the causal role of negative mood in the course of chronic pain conditions remains unclear. This study prospectively investigated the relationship between daily pain, negative mood, and social support in 109 people with reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome. Participants completed 28 daily diaries that included questions about pain, mood, and perceived support. Time-lagged within-subject analyses indicated that pain led to increases in depressed, anxious, and angry mood. Depressed mood, but not anxiety or anger, contributed to increases in pain. Perceived support had both main and buffering (interaction) effects on negative mood and a main effect on pain.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

The mediating roles of perceived social support and resources in the self-efficacy-suicide attempts relation among African American abused women.

The authors examined whether self-efficacy among African American abused women decreased their risk of suicide attempts through the mediating influences of perceived social support from friends, perceived social support from family, and perceived effectiveness for obtaining material resources. The sample consisted of 100 women who presented to a hospital following a suicide attempt and 100 women who presented to the same hospital for nonemergency medical problems. Results revealed that the association between self-efficacy and suicide attempt status was partially accounted for by the mediating roles of perceived social support from friends and family, and perceived effectiveness at obtaining resources. Findings suggest that interventions to increase abused women's self-efficacy should focus on increasing their capacity to obtain social and material resources.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1976

The Honi phenomenon revisited: factors underlying the resistance to perceptual distortion of one's partner.

An individual being viewed in an Ames room usually appears considerably altered in physical size to an observer. However, some married persons perceive less size distortion of their spouses than a stranger. This instance of selective perceptual distortion, known as the Honi phenomenon, could perhaps reflect differential familiarity and/or emotional involvement toward these stimulus persons. Using heterosexual couples as subjects, we investigated familiarity (i.e., length of the relationship), type of relationship (i.e., dating, engaged, or married), and positive cathexis (i.e., love, liking, and trust of one's partner) as possible mediators of this effect and also explored the impact of some judgemental variations. Neither familiarity nor type of relationship influenced relative perceptual distortion of partner versus stranger. Rather, selective perceptual distortion was directly related to the strength of positive cathexis, principally among females. Only women high in positive cathexis exhibited the Honi phenomenon and perceived a stranger as being more distorted than their partners. In contrast, size judgements by men were affected only by the sequence in which stimulus persons were observed. Implications and interpretations of these findings are discussed.

Awareness↗
PubMed1976

Machiavellianism in patients and their children.

The role of the family in the development of Machiavellianism was examined in this study. High- and low-Machiavellian sixth graders played a bluffing game. Their parents completed Machiavellian belief measures. The Machiavellianism of fathers and mothers was positively related to their children's success at deceiving others but not at seeing through others' attempts at deception. In addition, fathers' Machiavellianism was positively related to their children's Machiavellian beliefs. These data support a modeling hypothesis for the development of Machiavellianism. Unexpectedly, the children's own behaviors and beliefs were unrelated. This pattern of results suggests that a child's manipulative behaviors and beliefs are learned separately and only become consistent over time.

Attitude↗
PubMed1977

Need compatibility and marital adjustment in young married couples.

This investigation of need compatibility in married couples introduced several theoretical and methodological innovations in an effort to overcome the problems inherent in previous studies. It was predicted that spouses would express greater adjustment on the Locke-Wallace Marital-Adjustment Scale to the extent that they were similar on 9 needs and complementary on 3 needs (Type 1) and 14 need combinations (Type 2). The needs of 66 young married couples were assessed by having them respond to a revised version of Jackson's Personality Research Form under four instructional sets: self, ideal self, spouse, and ideal spouse. The results revealed that although all couples tended to be similar in their ideal ratings, well-adjusted spouses were more similar than poorly adjusted spouses in their self and spouse ratings, as predicted, especially in the needs for affiliation, aggression, autonomy, and nutrurance. No evidence for either Type 1 or Type 2 complementarity emerged. The results were discussed in terms of their implications for Winch's theory of complementary needs and for past and future investigation of need compatibility.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1982

Measurement of empathy toward rape victims and rapists.

The purpose of the present study was the construction of the Rape Empathy Scale (RES), designed to measure subjects' empathy toward the rape victim and the rapist in a heterosexual rape situation. The results of psychometric analyses of reliability for both a student and juror sample are presented, in addition to evidence of cross-validation on separate student and juror samples. Significant differences between male and female subjects' RES scores were found, as well as differences between scores of women who had experienced a rape situation (rape victims and rape resisters) and women with no previous exposure to rape. RES scores were predictive of both students' and jurors' ratings of defendant guilt, as well as their recommended sentences for the defendant and their attributions of responsibility for the crime. Furthermore, subjects' RES scores were predictive of their social perceptions of the rape victim and defendant, and male jurors' RES scores were negatively correlated with their reported desire to rape a woman. The results are discussed in relation to the low conviction rate for sexual assault cases and the importance of juror selection as a vehicle for increasing the number of just convictions in rape cases.

Adult↗
PubMed1986

Social evaluation and the empathy-altruism hypothesis.

Archer, Diaz-Loving, Gollwitzer, Davis, and Foushee (1981) suggested that feeling empathy for a person in need may lead to increased helping because the empathic individual wants to avoid negative social evaluation. As support for this suggestion, they claimed that empathy leads to increased helping only under socially evaluative circumstances. We conducted two studies to test this claim. In Study 1 subjects were led to believe that no one--including the person in need--would ever know if they declined to help. In this situation, which was designed to be totally devoid of the potential for negative social evaluation for not helping, there was still a positive relationship between self-reported empathic emotion and offering help. In Study 2 empathy (low versus high) and social evaluation (low versus high) were manipulated in a 2 X 2 design. Once again there was a positive relationship between empathy and offering help when the potential for social evaluation was low as well as high. Results of both studies, then, suggest that the motivation to help evoked by empathy is not egoistic motivation to avoid negative social evaluation. Instead, the observed pattern was what would be expected if empathy evokes altruistic motivation to reduce the victim's need.

Adult↗
PubMed1987

Recipient's mood, relationship type, and helping.

We conducted two studies to examine how a potential helper is affected by having a communal orientation toward a relationship with a potential recipient and by the potential recipient's sadness. We hypothesized that (a) having a communal orientation would increase helping and that (b) people high in communal orientation, but not others, would respond to a potential recipient's sadness by increasing helping. These hypotheses were tested in two studies. In Study 1, individual differences in communal orientation toward relationships were measured by using a new communal orientation scale reported for the first time in this article. In Study 2, manipulations were used to lead subjects to desire either a communal or an exchange relationship with another person. In both studies, subjects were exposed to a sad person or to a person in a neutral mood whom they were given a chance to help. As hypothesized, in both studies communally oriented subjects helped the other significantly more than did others. Also as hypothesized, in both studies communally oriented subjects but not others, increased helping in response to the other person's sadness although this effect reached statistical significance only in the second study.

Adult↗
PubMed1988

Consensus in personality judgments at zero acquaintance.

This research focused on the target effect on a perceiver's judgments of personality when the perceiver and the target are unacquainted. The perceiver was given no opportunity to interact with the target, a condition we refer to as zero acquaintance. We reasoned that in order to make personality judgments, perceivers would use the information available to them (physical appearance). Consensus in personality judgments would result, then, from shared stereotypes about particular physical appearance characteristics. Results from three separate studies with 259 subjects supported this hypothesis. On two of the five dimensions (extraversion and conscientiousness) on which subjects rated each other, a significant proportion of variance was due to the stimulus target. Consensus on judgments of extraversion appears to have been largely mediated by judgments of physical attractiveness. Across the three studies there was also evidence that the consensus in judgments on these two dimensions had some validity, in that they correlated with self-judgments on those two dimensions.

Beauty↗
PubMed1988

Academic stress, social support, and secretory immunoglobulin A.

We examined the relation of academic stress and social support to salivary concentrations of secretory immunoglobulin A (S-IgA), an antibody class that plays an important role in mucosal defense against acute upper respiratory tract infections. We assayed whole, unstimulated saliva samples collected from 15 healthy undergraduates 5 days before their final exam period, during their exam period, and 14 days after their last final exam for S-IgA concentrations by single radial immunodiffusion. The students rated the university's general psychological climate as being more stressful during the exam period compared with the two other periods. Paralleling this, their salivary concentrations of S-IgA were lower during the exam period. Students who reported more adequate social support at the preexam period had consistently higher S-IgA levels than did their peers reporting less adequate social support. This latter finding is consonant with the social support direct effects hypothesis, which states that social support enhances health outcomes irrespective of whether the individual is exposed to stressful experiences.

Achievement↗
PubMed1991

Effect of depression on quantity and quality of social inferences.

Two studies explored depressives' sensitivity to social information as an impediment to their gaining a sense of confidence and control. In Study 1, Ss viewed a videotape of an actor performing an achievement task and were asked to list their impressions of the actor. As compared with nondepressed Ss, depressed Ss generated more inferences overall, generated more abstract inferences, and exhibited less overall confidence in their impression of the actor. In Study 2, Ss reported their beliefs of the utility of information about a person's past behaviors and personality for understanding, predicting future behavior, and describing that person. Depressed Ss expressed more interest than did nondepressed Ss in both types of information but were less confident of the utility of the information for prediction.

Adult↗
PubMed1992

Paranoia and self-consciousness.

A new instrument designed to assess paranoid thought in college students, together with reliability and validity data, was presented in Study 1. A single general factor accounted for a substantial portion of the variance in the full scale. Public self-consciousness was consistently and significantly correlated with the present measure of paranoia. In Study 2, both pretested paranoia and public self-consciousness were related to feelings of being watched (a classical manifestation of paranoia), although public self-consciousness had an effect only when there was a 2-way mirror present. In Study 3, self-attention, experimentally induced using a story construction task, again resulted in a heightened sense of being observed. Discussion focuses on paranoid cognition as characteristic of everyday thought and the implications of self-attention for social perception processes.

Adult↗
PubMed1992

Personality feedback and situational norms can control stereotyping processes.

Impressions are influenced by motivations stemming primarily from the target (e.g., interdependence), 3rd parties (e.g., accountability or time pressure), or the self. The current studies investigate motivations stemming primarily from the self. In Study 1, Ss were given dispositional feedback about their abilities to categorize or to individuate. In Study 2, they were given situational information about the appropriate norms to categorize or to individuate. As predicted, dispositional feedback influenced low self-monitors, and situational information influenced high self-monitors. Both altered attention to potentially individuating category-inconsistent attributes as well as requests for additional information. Causal models further illuminated the mediating processes. These results suggest that people's flexible self-concepts are an important source of motivation in impression formation.

Adult↗
PubMed1993

Pluralistic ignorance and alcohol use on campus: some consequences of misperceiving the social norm.

Four studies examined the relation between college students' own attitudes toward alcohol use and their estimates of the attitudes of their peers. All studies found widespread evidence of pluralistic ignorance: Students believed that they were more uncomfortable with campus alcohol practices than was the average student. Study 2 demonstrated this perceived self-other difference also with respect to one's friends. Study 3 traced attitudes toward drinking over the course of a semester and found gender differences in response to perceived deviance: Male students shifted their attitudes over time in the direction of what they mistakenly believed to be the norm, whereas female students showed no such attitude change. Study 4 found that students' perceived deviance correlated with various measures of campus alienation, even though that deviance was illusory. The implications of these results for general issues of norm estimation and responses to perceived deviance are discussed.

Adult↗
PubMed1994

Self-evaluation effects of interpersonal versus intergroup social comparison.

Two studies tested the prediction that the outcome of social comparison will differ depending on whether interpersonal or intergroup comparison processes have been engaged. Results of an experiment in which college student participants were assigned to membership in a minority or majority social category confirmed the predicted three-way interaction effect of in-group salience, target group membership, and upward-downward comparison on self-assessments of academic ability. Majority group members exhibited contrast effects in their self-ratings following exposure to a videotape of an in-group member displaying either very high or very low academic competence. Self-evaluations of minority group members revealed assimilation effects in response to in-group comparisons and contrast effects in response to out-group comparisons. In a second, follow-up experiment, this in-group assimilation effect was found to be dependent on intergroup contrast.

Adult↗
PubMed1994

Social comparison and affiliation under threat: going beyond the affiliate-choice paradigm.

This study examined the emotional similarity hypothesis--a derivation from social comparison theory, which predicts that increasing fear should lead to greater affiliation with someone who is awaiting the same threat (and who therefore is of relatively similar emotional status) relative to someone who has already experienced the threat (and who therefore is of relatively dissimilar emotional status). The results failed to support the emotional similarity hypothesis and in so doing challenged the importance of emotional comparison as a determinant of verbal affiliation under threat. Cognitive clarity concerns instead seemed to account better for the observed effects on verbal affiliation. Supplementary analyses of nonverbal affiliation (facial glances) likewise ran counter to an emotional similarity prediction. Effects of affiliation on anxiety were also examined. Previous conclusions regarding the pattern and causes of affiliation under threat that have relied on the affiliate-choice paradigm are considered.

Adaptation, Psychological↗