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PubMedDate not supplied

The incidence and severity of acute respiratory illness in families exposed to different levels of air pollution, New York metropolitan area, 1971-1972.

The incidence and severity of acute respiratory disease was studied in families in three New York communities with different ambient levels of SO2 and particulate air pollution. Upper, lower, and total respiratory disease rates in fathers, mothers, and school children tended to be higher in the communities with higher pollution levels. Similar higher rates, however, were not observed among preschool children. Regression analyses were used to adjust rates for socioeconomic status, parental smoking, chronic bronchitis in parents, and possible indoor pollution resulting from the use of a gas stove for cooking. After these adjustments the community differences were still significant (P less than .01), for schoolchildren. The indoor pollution related to gas stoves was a significant covariate among children. The effects of smoking were inconsistent. It was not possible to attribute the higher rates observed to any specific pollutant, since both SO2 and particulate matter levels were higher in the high pollution communities, nor was it possible to attribute the excesses to current levels of exposure or to a residual effect of previous higher exposure concentrations. The fact that young children did not follow the pattern suggests the latter. It was concluded, however, that current or previous exposures to the complexity of air pollutants in New York City was at least partially responsible for increased incidences of acute respiratory disease.

Acute Disease↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Associations between respiratory illness and PM10 air pollution.

In this study, the association between daily morbidity and respirable particulate pollution (i.e., particles with a mass median aerodynamic diameter of < or = 10 microns [PM10]) was evaluated in the general population of Anchorage, Alaska. Using insurance claims data for state employees and their dependents who lived in Anchorage, Alaska, the authors determined the number of medical visits for asthma, bronchitis, and upper respiratory infections. The number of visits were related to the level of particulate pollution in ambient air measured at air-monitoring sites. This study was conducted during a 3-y period, which included several weeks of higher-level particulate pollution that resulted from a volcanic eruption (i.e., August 1992). The particulate pollution was measured by the Anderson head sampler (24-h accumulation). The medical visits of the population at risk were also tallied daily. To help confirm whether PM10 exposure was a risk factor in the exacerbation of asthma, we used a regression analysis to regress daily asthma visits on PM10 pollution levels, controlling for seasonal variability. A significant positive association between morbidity and PM10 pollution was observed. The strongest association was with concurrent-day PM10 levels. The relative risk of morbidity was higher with respect to PM10 pollution during warmer days.

Air Pollution↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Impact of air pollution on prevalence of rhinitis in Istanbul.

The effects of air pollution on health are of concern worldwide. There are several pollutants of concern, among which are sulfur dioxide, total suspended particulates, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and volatile organic chemicals. In several studies, researchers investigated the effects of those pollutants on lung and nasal functions, although in very few studies has nasal function been addressed. We evaluated the effects of air pollution on the prevalence of rhinitis in a metropolitan of Turkey, Istanbul. Until 1994, coal was used for both domestic heating and industrial processes in the city. Consequently, sulfur dioxide and total suspended particulate concentrations in the ambient air exceeded limits of air-quality standards. In recent years, especially during the early 1990s, hazardous air pollution levels were reached in Istanbul. In this study, we evaluated the incidence of rhinitis before and after installation of a natural-gas network in a polluted area of the city. In 1994, 62.5% of the individuals studied suffered from rhinitis, compared with 51% of the sample in 1996 (p < .05). Age, gender, smoking status, heating source, nor household crowding significantly affected this outcome. The findings strengthened the role of pollutant levels as risk factors for rhinitis.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Serum complement levels in children in communities with different levels of air pollution in Japan.

To investigate the effects of air pollution on human health, we determined serum concentrations of complement components C3c and C4 in 1037 children who lived in 4 communities with different levels of air pollution in Japan. Serum levels of C3c and C4 were higher in children who lived in Osaka, which had a high level of air pollution, than in children who lived in areas of low air pollution. In boys, both C3c and C4 levels were increased significantly as concentrations of air pollution increased in the communities. In girls, however, the relationship was not significant. Serum levels of C3c and C4 did not differ with respect to asthma or wheezing. These findings suggest that serum C3c and C4 levels in children reflect the effects of exposure to air pollutants in urban districts. Boys appeared to be more susceptible to the effects of air pollution than girls.

Air Pollutants↗
PubMedDate not supplied

DNA damage in nasal and brain tissues of canines exposed to air pollutants is associated with evidence of chronic brain inflammation and neurodegeneration.

Acute, subchronic, or chronic exposures to particulate matter (PM) and pollutant gases affect people in urban areas and those exposed to fires, disasters, and wars. Respiratory tract inflammation, production of mediators of inflammation capable of reaching the brain, systemic circulation of PM, and disruption of the nasal respiratory and olfactory barriers are likely in these populations. DNA damage is crucial in aging and in age-associated diseases such as Alzheimer's disease. We evaluated apurinic/apyrimidinic (AP) sites in nasal and brain genomic DNA, and explored by immunohistochemistry the expression of nuclear factor NFkappaB p65, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclo-oxygenase 2 (COX2), metallothionein I and II, apolipoprotein E, amyloid precursor protein (APP), and beta-amyloid(1-42) in healthy dogs naturally exposed to urban pollution in Mexico City. Nickel (Ni) and vanadium (V) were measured by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Forty mongrel dogs, ages 7 days-10 years were studied (14 controls from Tlaxcala and 26 exposed to urban pollution in South West Metropolitan Mexico City (SWMMC)). Nasal respiratory and olfactory epithelium were found to be early pollutant targets. Olfactory bulb and hippocampal AP sites were significantly higher in exposed than in control age matched animals. Ni and V were present in a gradient from olfactory mucosa > olfactory bulb > frontal cortex. Exposed dogs had (a) nuclear neuronal NFkappaB p65, (b) endothelial, glial and neuronal iNOS, (c) endothelial and glial COX2, (d) ApoE in neuronal, glial and vascular cells, and (e) APP and beta amyloid(1-42) in neurons, diffuse plaques (the earliest at age 11 months), and in subarachnoid blood vessels. Increased AP sites and the inflammatory and stress protein brain responses were early and significant in dogs exposed to urban pollution. Oil combustion PM-associated metals Ni and V were detected in the brain. There was an acceleration of Alzheimer's-type pathology in dogs chronically exposed to air pollutants. Respiratory tract inflammation and deteriorating olfactory and respiratory barriers may play a role in the observed neuropathology. These data suggest that Alzheimer's disease may be the sequela of air pollutant exposures and the resulting systemic inflammation.

Age Distribution↗
PubMed2000

Exposure to air pollution is associated with lung hyperinflation in healthy children and adolescents in Southwest Mexico City: a pilot study.

Air pollution produces adverse health effects. The consequences of lifelong daily exposures to atmospheric pollutants upon the respiratory apparatus of healthy children are of considerable clinical importance. We investigated the association between exposure to a highly polluted urban environment with a complex mixture of air pollutants-ozone and particulate matter the predominant ones-and chest x-ray abnormalities in 59 healthy Mexican children who are lifelong residents of Southwest Metropolitan Mexico City (SWMMC), with a negative history of tobacco exposure and respiratory illnesses. Their clinical results and x-ray findings were compared to those of 19 Mexican control children, residents of a low-pollution area, with a similar negative history of tobacco exposure and respiratory illnesses. Ozone concentrations in SWMMC exceeded the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) for O(3): 0.08 ppm as 1-h maximal concentration, not to be exceeded more than 4 times a year, on 71% of days in 1986 and 95% in 1997, with values as high as 0.48 ppm. Ozone maximal peaks are usually recorded between 2 and 5 pm coinciding with children's outdoor physical activities. Children in the control group reported no upper or lower respiratory symptomatology. Every SWMMC child complained of upper and/or lower respiratory symptoms, including epistaxis, nasal dryness and crusting, cough, shortness of breath, and chest discomfort. Children aged 7-13 yr had the most symptomatology, while 5- to 6-year olds and adolescents with the lowest number of statistically significant outdoor exposure hours had less respiratory symptoms. Bilateral symmetric mild lung hyperinflation was significantly associated with exposure to the SWMMC atmosphere (p = .0004). Chronic and sustained inhalation of a complex mixture of air pollutants, including ozone and particulate matter (PM), is associated with lung hyperinflation, suggestive of small airway disease, in a population of clinically healthy children and adolescents. Small airways are a target of air pollutants in SWMMC children, with ozone and PM being most likely responsible, based on experimental animal, controlled-chamber, and epidemiological data available. Our main concern is the potential likelihood for the development of chronic lung disease in this highly exposed population.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Air pollution and postneonatal mortality in a tropical city: Kaohsiung, Taiwan.

With growing evidence of the association between daily mortality and air pollution in adults, it is important to investigate whether infants are also susceptible to the adverse health effects of ambient air pollutants. The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between air pollution and postneonatal mortality in Kaohsiung, Taiwan, a large industrial city with a tropical climate, during the period 1994-2000, using a case-crossover analysis. Case-crossover analysis provides an alternative to Poisson time-series regression for studying the short-term adverse health effects of air pollution. The air pollutants examined included particulate matter (PM(10)), sulfur dioxide (SO(2)), ozone (O(3)), nitrogen dioxide (NO(2)), and carbon monoxide (CO). The risk of postneonatal deaths was estimated to increase by 4.0% per 67 microg/m(3) (the interquartile range in daily ambient concentration of PM(10)) for PM(10), 1.8% per 17.84 ppb for NO(2), 5.1% per 0.31 ppm for CO, and 4.6% per 19.20 ppb for O(3). Although positive, none of these associations achieved statistical significance. The established link between air pollution levels and infant mortality may not be as strong in cities with tropical climates, although other factors such as differences in pollutant mix or the underlying health of the postneonates may explain the lack of a strong association in this study. Further studies of this type in cities with varying climates and cultures are needed.

Air Pollution↗
PubMed2003

Emissions of air pollutants from the road transport sector in Greece: year to year variation and present situation.

It is common knowledge that atmospheric emissions of various pollutants, from mobile and stationary sources, affect quality of life and public health. The impact of these emissions can be of a small (urban smog) or regional scale (acid deposition, troposheric ozone), as a result of the transportation of pollutants in the atmosphere. In terms of a local scale, road traffic is considered to be the most important pollutants source. In the present work, air pollutants emissions from road transport in Greece will be presented. The reference date for the calculations is the year 2000, but additionally, a year-to-year variation (from 1992 to 2000) of the emissions will be examined in order to clarify the impact of the vehicle fleet and the engine technology changes. To calculate emissions, a methodology developed for the European Commission in the framework of the CORINAIR project has been applied. This methodology was further improved and adjusted to the greek fleet characteristics taking into account the vehicle age, the level of the vehicle maintenance etc. Calculations have shown that, despite during the last years the amount of the emitted pollutants per vehicle has significantly decreased, the total pollutants emitted have increased as a result of the increase the number of circulating vehicles. More specifically, in heavy duty vehicles and passenger cars have the most important role for emitting NOx, whilst motorcycles are the most important polluters for non-methene article organic compounds.

Air Movements↗
PubMed2006

Heavy metal deposition and soil pollution along two major rural highways.

Road traffic and maintenance induce a chronic heavy metal pollution in runoff water and roadside soil. A portion of these pollutants could be dispersed into the atmosphere or deposited onto soils as a result of wind dispersion. The atmospheric deposition and quality of roadside soil have been investigated alongside two major rural highways. Metal deposition decreases rapidly and seems to reach the background level at a distance of less than 25 m. The deposition of zinc was found to be the most significant, followed by Pb and Cu. The fluxes of metals dispersed by atmospheric deposition have been evaluated and compared to pollutant loadings in runoff water. Pollutant concentrations in soils decrease rapidly with distance from the roadway. The pollution is concentrated within a 5-m band and the lead content exceeds the limit value for contaminated soil at a distance of 0.50 m from the road at the older site; moreover, galvanised crash barriers constitute an additional source of zinc pollution. The EDTA extractions of metals show the high bioavailability of lead in polluted soils.

Environmental Monitoring↗
PubMed2003

The prevalence of self-reported symptoms of respiratory disease and community belief about the severity of pollution from various sources.

It is postulated that health effects of air pollution may be direct and indirect through people's perception about the severity of pollution and concerns over its impact on their health. A cross sectional postal survey of some 6,559 households was conducted in the area of Ellesmere Port and Neston Borough Council. A total of 3,402 (51.9%) usable questionnaires were returned and included in the subsequent analyses. Childhood asthma was associated with central heating. Adult asthma was associated with the number of people in the house who had ever smoked and 'crowding'. General adult respiratory symptoms were associated with perception of industrial air pollution and neighbour noise in univariable but not multivariable analyses. In the multivariable model number of people in the household who had ever smoked, exposure to traffic fume pollution, crowding and living in rented accommodation. This suggests a complex relationship between actual levels of pollution (though not directly measured in this study), social deprivation, socio-behavioural factors and people's perceptions about pollution. A model of the relationship of these factors is proposed and it is argued that studies of the health impact of air pollution that concentrate only on chemical exposure will be flawed unless they are placed in the context of perception and socio-behavioural factors.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1995

Air pollution and mortality: issues and uncertainties.

Results from 31 epidemiology studies linking air pollution with premature mortality are compared and synthesized. Consistent positive associations between mortality and various measures of air pollution have been shown within each of two fundamentally different types of regression studies and in many variations within these basic types; this is extremely unlikely to have occurred by chance. In this paper, the measure of risk used is the elasticity, which is a dimensionless regression coefficient defined as the percentage change in the dependent variable associated with a 1% change in an independent variable, evaluated at the means. This metric has the advantage of independence from measurement units and averaging times, and is thus suitable for comparisons within and between studies involving different pollutants. Two basic types of studies are considered: time-series studies involving daily perturbations, and cross-sectional studies involving longer-term spatial gradients. The latter include prospective studies of differences in individual survival rates in different locations and studies of the differences in annual mortality rates for various communities. For a given data set, time-series regression results will vary according to the seasonal adjustment method used, the covariates included, and the lag structure assumed. The results from both types of cross-sectional regressions are highly dependent on the methods used to control for socioeconomic and personal lifestyle factors and on data quality. A major issue for all of these studies is that of partitioning the response among collinear pollution and weather variables. Previous studies showed that the variable with the least exposure measurement error may be favored in multiple regressions; assigning precise numerical results to a single pollutant is not possible under these circumstances. We found that the mean overall elasticity as obtained from time-series studies for mortality with respect to various air pollutants entered jointly was about 0.048, with a range from 0.01 to 0.12. This implies that about 5% of daily mortality is associated with air pollution, on average. The corresponding values from population-based cross-sectional studies were similar in magnitude, but the results from the three recent prospective studies varied from zero to about five times as much. Long-term responses in excess of short-term responses might be interpreted as showing the existence of chronic effects, but the uncertainties inherent in both types of studies make such an interpretation problematic.

Air Pollution↗
PubMed2003

Tradescantia pallida cv. purpurea boom in the characterization of air pollution by accumulation of trace elements.

Tradescantia pallida cv. purpurea, a plant species widely employed for ornamentation in Brazil, has been successfully used for monitoring the genotoxicity of various agents by the micronucleus assay. To amplify knowledge about its suitability as a bioindicator species, its capacity for accumulating trace elements from urban air pollution was evaluated. T. pallida was rooted using standardized soil, and the vases were distributed in two highly polluted sites of the urban area of São Paulo, Brazil (Cerqueira Cesar and Congonhas districts), and in one unpolluted control site situated approximately 50 km from downtown São Paulo (in Caucaia do Alto). Approximately six months after exposure to pollutants, adult leaves of this plant were collected monthly for 12 months. The leaves were washed with deionized water, dried, and ground for analyses. Characterization of element levels was carried out by neutron activation analysis. Powdered samples and standards were irradiated at the IEA-R1 nuclear reactor for short and long periods, and concentrations of As, Ba, Br, Ca, Ce, Cl, Cr, Co, Fe, K, La, Mn, Na, Rb, Sb, Sc, Sr, Th, and Zn were determined. Analysis of variance applied to the results indicated that samples from polluted sites present the highest concentrations of Ba, Ce, Cr, Co, Fe, La, Sb, and Sc (p < 0.05). Discriminant analysis revealed that it was possible to distinguish the two polluted areas with a precision of 97.5%, based on the amount of pollutant elements measured in the plants at each site. The results indicated the potential use of T. pallida as an accumulator plant for air pollution biomonitoring.

Air Pollutants↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Spatial regression models for large-cohort studies linking community air pollution and health.

Cohort study designs are often used to assess the association between community-based ambient air pollution concentrations and health outcomes, such as mortality, development and prevalence of disease, and pulmonary function. Typically, a large number of subjects are enrolled in the study in each of a small number of communities. Fixed-site monitors are used to determine long-term exposure to ambient pollution. The association between community average pollution levels and health is determined after controlling for risk factors of the health outcome measured at the individual level (i.e., smoking). We present a new spatial regression model linking spatial variation in ambient air pollution to health. Health outcomes can be measured as continuous variables (pulmonary function), binary variables (prevalence of disease), or time-to-event data (survival or development of disease). The model incorporates risk factors measured at the individual level, such as smoking, and at the community level, such as air pollution. We demonstrate that the spatial autocorrelation in community health outcomes, an indication of not fully characterizing potentially confounding risk factors to the air pollution--health association, can be accounted for through the inclusion of location in the deterministic component of the model assessing the effects of air pollution on health or through a distance-decay spatial autocorrelation function in the stochastic component of the model, or both. We present a statistical approach that can be implemented for very large cohort studies. Our methods are illustrated with an analysis of the American Cancer Society cohort to determine whether the prevalence of heart disease is associated with concentrations of sulfate particles. From a statistical point of view, it appears that a location surface in the deterministic component of the model was preferred to a distance-decay autocorrelation structure in the model's stochastic component.

Air Pollution↗
PubMed2005

Preterm birth: the interaction of traffic-related air pollution with economic hardship in Los Angeles neighborhoods.

Preterm birth may be affected by the interaction of residential air pollution with neighborhood economic hardship. The authors examined variations in traffic-related pollution exposure--measured by distance-weighted traffic density--using a framework reflecting the social and physical environments. An adverse social environment was conceptualized as low socioeconomic status (SES) neighborhoods--census tracts with concentrated poverty, unemployment, and dependence on public assistance. An adverse physical environment was depicted by the winter season, when thermal inversions trap motor vehicle pollutants, thereby increasing traffic-related air pollution. Los Angeles County, California, birth records from 1994 to 1996 were linked to traffic counts, census data, and ambient air pollution measures. The authors fit multivariate logistic models of preterm birth, stratified by neighborhood SES and third pregnancy trimester season. Traffic-related air pollution exposure disproportionately affected low SES neighborhoods in the winter. Further, in these poorer neighborhoods, the winter season evidenced increased susceptibility among women with known risk factors. Health insurance was most beneficial to women residing in neighborhoods exposed to economic hardship and an adverse physical environment. Reducing preterm births warrants a concerted effort of social, economic, and environmental policies, focused on not only individual risk factors but also the reduction of localized air pollution, expansion of health-care coverage, and improvement of neighborhood resources.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Impact of urban atmospheric pollution on coronary disease.

Recent epidemiological findings have suggested that urban atmospheric pollution may have adverse effects on the cardiovascular system as well as on the respiratory system. We carried out an exhaustive search of published studies investigating links between coronary heart disease and urban atmospheric pollution. The review was conducted on cited articles published between 1994 and 2005 and whose main objective was to measure the risk of ischaemic heart diseases related to urban pollution. Of the 236 references identified, 46 epidemiological studies were selected for analysis on the basis of pre-defined criteria. The studies were analysed according to short-term effects (time series and case-crossover designs) and long-term effects (case-control and cohort studies). A link between coronary heart disease and at least one of the pollutants studied (PM10, O3, NOx, CO, SO2) emerged in 40 publications. Particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, and carbon monoxide were the pollutants most often linked with coronary heart disease. The association was inconstant for O3. Although the mean mortality or morbidity risk related to urban atmospheric pollution is low compared with that associated with other better-known risk factors, its impact on health is nevertheless major because of the large number of people who are exposed. This exhaustive review supports the possibility that urban pollution is indeed an environmental cardiovascular risk factor and should be considered as such by the cardiologists.

Air Pollution↗
PubMed1994

Short-term effects of air pollution on daily mortality in Athens: a time-series analysis.

BACKGROUND: Athens has a serious air pollution problem which became evident in the early 1970s. Studies for the years 1975-1982 have indicated a positive association of sulphur dioxide (SO2) with total daily mortality. Since 1983 the pollution profile in Athens has gradually changed but the levels of smoke, SO2 and carbon monoxide (CO) remain relatively high. METHODS: The association of air pollution with daily all-cause mortality in Athens for the years 1984-1988 was investigated using daily values of SO2, smoke and CO. Autoregressive models with log-transformed daily mortality as the dependent variable, were used to adjust for temperature and relative humidity (both lagged by 1 day), year, season and day of week, as well as for serial correlations in mortality. RESULTS: Graphic analysis revealed non-linear monotonically increasing relationships between total mortality and SO2, smoke and CO, with steeper exposure-response slopes at lower air pollution levels. Air pollution data lagged by 1 day had the strongest association with daily mortality. In three separate autoregression models for log(SO2), log(smoke) and log(CO) the regression coefficients for each were highly statistically significant (P < 0.001). Further multiple regression modelling showed that SO2 and smoke are both independent predictors of daily mortality, though to a lesser extent than temperature and relative humidity. The inclusion of CO in the model did not further improve the prediction of daily mortality. The magnitude of association is small, for instance, a 10% reduction in smoke is estimated to decrease daily mortality by 0.75% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.51-0.99). However, it cannot be accounted for by climatic and seasonal effects, so that a causal influence of air pollution on daily mortality seems plausible. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that current air pollution levels in Athens (and many other industrialized cities) may be responsible for substantial numbers of premature deaths, and hence remain an important public health issue.

Air Pollutants↗
PubMed1982

Air pollution as a risk factor in lung cancer.

Retrospective data on residential and employment history and on smoking were obtained from 417 white male lung cancer patients and 752 controls with nonrespiratory, nonneoplastic diseases, from Erie County, New York, admitted to Roswell Park Memorial Institute from 1957-1965. Total suspended particulate data and a historical review of problem point sources of pollution were used to delineate air pollution zones. The findings did not support the hypothesis that air pollution alone significantly increased risk for lung cancer. However, there was increased risk from smoking and occupational exposures if there was also long-term exposure to air pollution. The risk for heavy smokers with heavy exposure to air pollution was over four times that of men with none of the high exposure traits. The findings suggest an apparent synergistic mechanism involving smoking and air pollution and smoking and occupational exposures. The findings are consistent with previous epidemiologic studies and with biologic and experimental evidence. The limitations of the methods used here necessitate further study and replication. However, the study indicates that air pollution should not be dismissed as a risk factor in lung cancer.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Ambient air pollution and cardiovascular emergency department visits.

BACKGROUND: Despite evidence supporting an association between ambient air pollutants and cardiovascular disease (CVD), the roles of the physicochemical components of particulate matter (PM) and copollutants are not fully understood. This time-series study examined the relation between ambient air pollution and cardiovascular conditions using ambient air quality data and emergency department visit data in Atlanta, Georgia, from January 1, 1993, to August 31, 2000. METHODS: Outcome data on 4,407,535 emergency department visits were compiled from 31 hospitals in Atlanta. The air quality data included measurements of criteria pollutants for the entire study period, as well as detailed measurements of mass concentrations for the fine and coarse fractions of PM and several physical and chemical characteristics of PM for the final 25 months of the study. Emergency department visits for CVD and for cardiovascular subgroups were assessed in relation to daily measures of air pollutants using Poisson generalized linear models controlling for long-term temporal trends and meteorologic conditions with cubic splines. RESULTS: Using an a priori 3-day moving average in single-pollutant models, CVD visits were associated with NO2, CO, PM2.5, organic carbon, elemental carbon, and oxygenated hydrocarbons. Secondary analyses suggested that these associations tended to be strongest with same-day pollution levels. CONCLUSIONS: These findings provide evidence for an association between CVD visits and several correlated pollutants, including gases, PM2.5, and PM2.5 components.

Adult↗