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PubMed2001

Greater effect of dietary potassium tripolyphosphate than of potassium dihydrogenphosphate on the nephrocalcinosis and proximal tubular function in female rats from the intake of a high-phosphorus diet.

We examined whether a difference in potassium dihydrogenphosphate (KH2PO4) and potassium tripolyphosphate (K5P3O10) as dietary phosphorus sources could differentially effect the nephrocalcinosis and proximal tubular function in female rats. Rats were fed on a diet containing KH2PO4 or K5P3O10, at the normal phosphorus level (normal phosphorus diet) or at a high phosphorus level (high-phosphorus diet) for 21 d. Nephrocalcinosis, as confirmed by a histological examination, was apparent in all rats fed on the high-phosphorus diet, and this condition was more severe in those rats fed on K5P3O10 than in those fed on KH2PO4. As indicators of the proximal tubular function, the N-acetyl-beta-D-glucosaminidase activity in urine and the urinary beta2-microglobulin excretion were significantly increased in those rats fed on the high-phosphorus diet containing K5P3O10. These results indicate that the intake of a high-phosphorus diet, more strongly influenced the nephrocalcinosis and proximal tubular function when K5P3O10 rather than KH2PO4 was used as the dietary phosphorus source.

Animals↗

PubMed1982

Synthetic [Asu1,7] eel calcitonin increases phosphorus content in the hepatic bile of intact and nephrectomized rats.

The effect of synthetic [Asu1,7] eel calcitonin (CT) on phosphorus content in the hepatic bile was investigated in intact and nephrectomized rats. The subcutaneous administration of CT (80 MRC mU/100 g BW) produced a significant fall in the serum inorganic phosphorus concentration and a corresponding increase in the amount of phosphorus in the liver and kidney. These changes were observed even at the lowest dose of CT (40 MRC mU/100 g BW). The phosphorus contents in the spleen, heart, lungs and muscle were not significantly changed by CT administration. CT also provoked a marked elevation of phosphorus excretion into the bile. In nephrectomized rats, CT (80 MRC mU/100 g BW) caused a significant decrease in serum inorganic phosphorus concentration and a remarkable increase in liver phosphorus content. CT markedly increased phosphorus excretion into the bile of nephrectomized rats. These results support the theory that the hypophosphatemic effect of CT may be, at least partly, based on its action on liver in addition to kidney. This effect of CT on the liver may be the cause of increased excretion of phosphorus into the bile.

Animals↗

PubMed1985

Phosphorus phase feeding and uterine and isthmus mucosal enzymes and minerals in relation to soft-shelled and shell-less egg production.

The relationships among phosphorus phase feeding, egg shell quality, and the activities and concentrations of several enzymes and minerals in the uterine and isthmus mucosae of hens at the time of oviposition were investigated. During the first 8 months of production (Phase 1), layer diets contained .3, .5, or .7% available phosphorus. Between 9 and 12 months of production (Phase 2), dietary available phosphorus was either increased or decreased by .2% phosphorus, or was left unchanged. No significant differences due to Phase 1 diets were demonstrated for hard-shelled (HS), soft-shelled (SS), or shell-less (SL) egg production, livability, egg weight, or specific gravity. Phase 2 diets had no significant effect on SS or SL egg production, livability, or egg specific gravity; however, decreasing dietary phosphorus reduced egg weight. Levels as high as .9% had no effect on specific gravity or HS egg production, while .1% dietary phosphorus was detrimental to HS egg production and feed consumption. No significant differences due to dietary available phosphorus or egg type (SS vs. HS) were demonstrated for uterine or isthmus mucosal enzyme activities or mineral contents, with one exception. Higher inorganic phosphorus concentrations were found in the uterus of HS egg layers when compared to levels in the uterus of SS egg layers and the isthmus of HS and SS egg layers. Acid phosphatase and carbonic anhydrase activities, and total calcium levels were significantly higher in the isthmus than the uterus, while alkaline phosphatase and pyrophosphatase activities, and inorganic phosphorus levels were significantly higher in the uterus than the isthmus.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Acid Phosphatase↗

PubMed2001

The characteristics of phosphorus removal in an anaerobic/aerobic sequential batch biofilter reactor.

Previous research has shown that alternated anaerobic/aerobic conditions are effective in removing phosphorus from wastewater using a biofilter system. However, few studies have been conducted on the features of polyphosphate (poly-P) accumulating organisms (PAOs) in biofilm on phosphorus removal. This study investigated the characteristics of the phosphorus removal mechanism in various hydraulic loads and anaerobic/aerobic time ratios using a sequential batch biofilter reactor. The storage and release of intracellular inclusions, especially polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) and poly-P, would be an important factor for phosphorus removal. Under different operating conditions, total phosphorus removal was always determined by accumulation of PHAs and phosphorus release under the anaerobic phase. The PHA accumulation under the anaerobic phase was always in proportion to the biofilm phosphorus content under aerobic conditions. The result shows PAOs activity was closely related to PHA accumulation. However, the PHA accumulation under the anaerobic phase would be dependent on the hydrolysis of the complex carbon source into short chain fatty acids (SCFA). The result would be demonstrated by the simple carbon source effect. The effect of the An/Ox time ratio on TP removal was significant. Shorter anaerobic time would result in insufficient phosphorus release and greater time would result in inactive PAOs. The appropriate An/Ox time ratio was suggested as 1/2. Comparisons of the phosphorus removal characteristics between biofilm and suspended growth under the same growth conditions are discussed in detail.

Bacteria, Aerobic↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Determination of phosphorus in fertilizers by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry.

An inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES) method was developed for the determination of phosphorus in fertilizers. Total phosphorus, direct extraction available phosphorus (EDTA), and water-soluble phosphorus, reported as phosphorus pentoxide (P205), in 15 Magruder check fertilizers were measured by ICP-AES, and the results were compared with those obtained by the AOAC official method. Five analytical wavelengths of phosphorus, 177.499, 178.287, 213.618, 214.914, and 253.565 nm, were tested for the determination of phosphorus in fertilizers, and their detection limits were obtained. Acid effects of perchloric acid and possible matrix effects of aluminum, calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium were negligible for phosphorus determination. Wavelength 213.618 nm was the best analytical wavelength for phosphorus determination by all 3 sample preparation methods for the selected Magruder fertilizers. The results demonstrated that the accuracy and precision of the ICP-AES method were comparable with those of the official methods.

Acids↗

PubMed2004

[Effect of phosphorus stress on chlorophyll biosynthesis, photosynthesis and biomass partitioning pattern of Fraxinus mandchurica seedlings].

Phosphorus is essential to forest trees for their growth and development, because of its important role in many metabolic processes of trees. But, most part of phosphorus in soils of Northeastern China is immobile and unavailable, and thus, many forest trees often suffer from phosphorus stress which affects the biomass accumulation of forest trees. The aim of this study is to understand how the chlorophyll biosynthesis, photosynthesis and biomass partitioning of Fraxinus mandchurica seedlings response to phosphorus stress. Sand culture experiment showed that when the seedlings were under phosphorus stress, their 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) biosynthesis rate and porphobilinogen (PBG) synthase activity were reduced, but no significant changes in chlorophyll a and b, total chlorophyll and carotenoid contents were found. The nitrogen content in leaves and roots and the phosphorus content in all parts of seedlings were reduced under phosphorus stress, and the reduction of N content in leaves induced the decrease of maximum quantum efficiency of PS II (Fv/Fm) efficiency of PS II photochemistry (phi(PS II)), electron transport rate (E(TR)), and maximum photosynthesis rate (Amax). The effect of phosphorus stress on chlorophyll biosynthesis didn't affect photosynthesis. Under phosphorus stress, the total biomass decreased, but more biomass was partitioned into roots.

Biomass↗

PubMed2005

[Phosphorus sorption capacities of the pond sediments in a headstream agricultural watershed].

The land uses in watersheds have important influence on the sediments of lakes and wetlands. Field and laboratory experiments were conducted to research the phosphorus adsorption by the pond sediments in the pond system in a headstream watershed. Being scattered in different ambient land uses and receiving soil particles from various sources, the pond system provides an excellent research example for the phosphorus sorption characteristics. It was found that the pond sediments had strong phosphorus sorption capacities. The phosphorus adsorption maximum (Smax) ranged from 228 to 974 mg x kg(-1), equilibrium phosphorus concentration (EPC0) ranged from 0.004 to 0.032mg L(-1). The mean degree of phosphorus saturation (DPS) of the pond sediments was only 9.5%. The situation of the ponds can influence the physico-chemical properties of sediments and their sorption characteristics. For Smax, Hill pond >Nonirrigation pond> Rice pond> River pond> Village pond. On the contrary, for EPC0, Hill pond< Nonirrigation pond< Rice pond < River pond < Village pond. The phosphorus adsorption maximum (Smax) was significantly correlated ly correlated with the KCl-extractable phosphorus (KCl-P, r2 = 0.83, p < 0.001). Multiple regression analysis shows that Fe(ox) and KCl-P are the key factors, which can influence phosphorus sorption of the pond sediments.

Adsorption↗

PubMed2006

[Effects of nitrite on phosphorus uptake in anaerobic/oxic process].

Abstract:Intermediate products of biological nitrogen removal process, nitrate and nitrite, could be used as electron acceptors for phosphorus removal. This study investigated the effects of nitrite on phosphorus uptake in anaerobic/oxic (A/O) biological phosphorus removal process. The results indicated that in addition to oxygen and nitrate (DPB(Na), Denitrifying Phosphorus removal Bacteria with nitrate as electron acceptor), to some extent, nitrite can also serve as electron acceptor to achieve the nitrite denitrifying phosphorus removal (DPB(Ni)). The quantity and rate of phosphorus uptake of DPBNi, however, were evidently lower than that of DPBN,. The nitrite existed in anoxic reactor made no difference to the quantity and rate of denitrifying phosphorus removal. But it would reduce the consumption of nitrate. Moreover, the data showed that the aerobic phosphate uptake of DPBNi was lower than that of anaerobic phosphorus-released sludge in traditional A/O process. However, there was no much difference between these two kinds of sludge in terms of the total phosphorus uptake quantity and the effluent quality.

Bacteria, Anaerobic↗

PubMed1988

[Calcium and phosphorus homeostasis of hypotrophic newborn infants fed breast milk].

In a randomized prospective study in 26 low birth weight infants (LBWI) small for gestational age (SGA) the concentrations of calcium and phosphorus as well as the activity of alkaline phosphatase in serum were measured up to the 42nd day of life. In addition the renal excretions of calcium and phosphorus were estimated in 12 of these infants. 42 very low birth weight infants (VLBWI) and 83 LBWI, both appropriate for gestational age (AGA), were included in the study as controls. There are changes in direction of lower concentrations of phosphorus and higher activities of alkaline phosphatase in the serum of SGA infants if compared to the control groups, but all values were within the normal range and all differences between the study groups are not significant. In contrast to this small differences of the serum parameters the renal excretion of phosphorus is significantly lower and the excretion of calcium significantly higher in the SGA group than in the control groups even on the third day of life. In the VLBWI, AGA such signs of a phosphorus deficiency appear later. The results suggest that infants born as SGA are not sufficiently provided with phosphorus during the intrauterine development. Thus, phosphorus supplementation has to be started immediately after birth in SGA infants. The measurement of renal excretions of calcium and phosphorus is more effective than that of serum parameters for monitoring the calcium-phosphorus-homöostasis during the first weeks of life.

Alkaline Phosphatase↗

PubMedDate not supplied

[Effect of long-term administration of thyroxine on the content of nucleic acids and certain indicators of phosphorus metabolism in the liver in experimental thyrotoxicosis].

In the liver of albino rats with experimental thyrotoxicosis a study was made of nucleic acids and some indices of phosphorus metabolism: total and inorganic phosphorus, total and acid-soluble phosphorus, phosphorus of RNA, DNA and phosphoproteins. A significant elevation of the RNA and DNA content was noted 1 1/2 months from the beginning of the experiment. An increase of the concentration of nucleic acid phosphorus and a simultaneous reduction of the content of phosphorus of phosphoproteins and inorganic phosphorus was noted in the phosphorus metabolism indices under study. The content of total and acid-soluble phosphorus displayed no significant change. The data obtained indicated that, along with increased catabolism in thyrotoxicosis there occurred rather intensive synthesis, without reaching the normal level, however.

Animals↗

PubMed1996

[Effect of histamine H2-receptor antagonists on the phosphorus-binding ability of phosphate binders in hemodialysis patients].

We examined the effects of histamine H2-receptor antagonists on the phosphorus binding ability of phosphate binders. Serum calcium, phosphorus, ALP, PTH and arterial blood pH and bicarbonate were measured during treatment with histamine H2-receptor antagonists accompanied by calcium carbonate in sixteen patients undergoing maintenance hemodialysis. Seven patients receiving histamine H2-receptor antagonists without calcium carbonate were selected as controls. In the sixteen patients receiving calcium carbonate, serum calcium, ALP, PTH and arterial blood pH and bicarbonate were not significantly altered during treatment with histamine H2-receptor antagonists, but serum phosphorus levels increased significantly after four (5.6 +/- 1.1 mg/dl) and eight weeks (5.9 +/- 0.8 mg/dl) of treatment as compared with that before treatment (4.8 +/- 1.2 mg/dl). Furthermore, serum phosphorus levels decreased significantly eight weeks after the discontinuation of treatment with histamine H2-receptor antagonists. In the seven control patients there were no statistical differences in serum calcium and phosphorus levels measured before and after treatment with histamine H2-receptor antagonists. In seven other patients receiving histamine H2-receptor antagonists with calcium carbonate, calcium carbonate was replaced with calcium lactate as the phosphate binder after four weeks of treatment with histamine H2-receptor antagonists. With the 4-week administration of histamine H2-receptor antagonists accompanied by calcium carbonate, the serum phosphorus level increased, similarly to that of the first study (from 6.3 +/- 0.9 to 7.1 +/- 0.5 mg/dl). However, with the substitution of calcium lactate, the serum phosphorus level decreased significantly (6.3 +/- 0.2 and 6.0 +/- 0.9 mg/dl after four and eight weeks, respectively, despite continued administration of histamine H2-receptor antagonists). These results suggest that histamine H2-receptor antagonists significantly affect the phosphorus binding ability of calcium carbonate, but not of calcium lactate. Although the exact mechanism remains obscure, one possible explanation may be related to the rise in pH of the gastric juice. Careful observation of changes in the serum phosphorus level is required in hemodialysis patients receiving calcium carbonate and histamine H2-receptor antagonists. Calcium lactate may be useful as a phosphate binder in such hemodialysis patients.

Adult↗

PubMed1996

[Role of phosphorus in hyperparathyroidism secondary to non-dialysed adult chronic renal insufficiency].

Secondary hyperparathyroidism (HPT II) occurs early in the course of chronic renal failure (CRF), mainly because of decreased calcitriol levels, low levels of serum calcium, retention of phosphorus, abnormal parathyroid gland function and hyperplasia, and peripheral resistance to the action of parathormone (PTH). Amongst these factors, phosphorus retention plays a crucial role in moderate and advanced CRF, by inhibiting renal calcitriol synthesis, lowering serum calcium levels and stimulating PTH secretion. In patients with mild CRF, phosphorus restriction prevents the development of HPT II by increasing renal calcitriol secretion. In patients with advanced CRF, the suppressive effect of phosphorus restriction may be obtained independent of any changes in plasma calcitriol levels, suggesting a direct effect of phosphorus on parathyroid function. Phosphorus restriction should be used in the early stages of CRF, together with a sufficient intake of calcium in the form of phosphorus chelating salts. When phosphorus and calcium serum concentrations are normalised but PTH levels are not in the target range, 1 alpha hydroxy vitamin D3 derivatives may be used, with a careful monitoring to avoid high serum levels of phosphorus or calcium.

Adult↗

PubMed1979

Identification of organic phosphorus covalently bound to collagen and non-collagenous proteins of chicken-bone matrix. The presence of O-phosphoserine and O-phosphothreonine in non-collagenous proteins, and their absence from phosporylated collagen.

Non-collagenous phosphoproteins, almost all of which can be extracted in EDTA at neutral pH in the presence of proteinase inhibitors, are identified in the matrix of chicken bone, and are therefore not covalently bound to collagen. Similarly, all the peptides containing gamma-carboxyglutamic acid are present in the EDTA extract and none in the insoluble residue, confirming that none is covalently linked to chicken bone collagen. However, organic phosphorus is also found to be present in chicken bone collagen, principally in the alpha2-chains. Of the total protein-bound organic phosphorus present in chicken bone matrix, approx. 80% is associated with the non-collagenous proteins and 20% with collagen. The soluble non-collagenous proteins contain both O-phosphoserine and O-phosphothreonine and these account for essentially of their organic phosphorus content. In contrast, collagen contains neither O-phosphoserine nor O-phosphothreonine. Indeed, no phosphorylated hydroxy amino acid, phosphoamidated amino acid or phosphorylated sugar could be identified in purified components of collagen, which contain approximately four to five atoms of organic phosphorus per molecule of collagen. Peptides containing organic phosphorus were isolated from partial acid hydrolysates and enzymic digests of purified collagen components, which contain an as-yet-unidentified cationic amino acid. These data, the very high concentrations of glutamic acid in the phosphorylated peptides, and the pH-stability of the organic phosphorus moiety in intact collagen chains strongly suggest that at least part of the organic phosphorus in collagen is present as phosphorylated glutamic acid. This would indicate that the two major chemically different protein fractions in chicken bone matrix that contain organic phosphorus may represent two distinct metabolic pools of organic phosphorus under separate biological control.

1-Carboxyglutamic Acid↗

PubMed1984

Phosphorus deficiency in a dairy herd.

Phosphorus deficiency was diagnosed in a 90 cow seasonal supply dairy herd which showed low milk production, ill-thrift, infertility and osteophagia. Serum inorganic phosphorus and pasture phosphorus levels were low, pasture Ca:P ratios high and soil phosphorus levels very low; the soil phosphate retention value was 96%. The deficiency, which had probably existed for several years, was considered to be due to inadequate annual phosphate fertiliser applications on a high phosphate retaining soil. Phosphorus deficiency may have been exacerbated by the application of lime without phosphate several months before the onset of severe clinical disease. The finding of low sodium levels in pasture samples suggested that sodium deficiency may have co-existed and contributed to the clinical picture. Treatment, comprising bone flour dusting of pasture, water trough supplementation and phosphorus-containing injections, appeared to induce ovarian activity in anoestrous cows and suppress osteophagia, though controlled treatment trials were not performed. No improvement was noted in milk production or cow condition. Increased annual super-phosphate and reduced potassium applications were recommended, together with the monitoring of pasture and soil macro elements and serum phosphorus levels. A decision on whether to supplement with sodium would be based on the results of pasture monitoring, since a direct animal test is not currently available. It is suggested that phosphorus deficiency may not be uncommon in dairy herds in some North Island districts; based on the present case, the decline in New Zealand superphosphate quality in the 1970's and recently published data which has shown a high proportion of pasture phosphorus deficient sites in some North Island areas.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2003

Fate of phosphorus from biological aerobic treatment of pig slurry. By-products characterization and recovery.

The fate of phosphorus distribution in the products obtained from biological aerobic treatment of pig slurry, e.g. separated solids, liquid effluent and sludge, was monitored in three different farm-scale units. Samples of raw slurry, solid products, aerated slurry, liquid effluent and sludge were characterised and analysed for their concentration in total phosphorus, nitrogen content and heavy metals (Cu and Zn). At each treatment stage, nitrogen, phosphorus and heavy metals mass balance between input and output was established. Moreover, liquid products were characterised and analysed both for their total and dissolved ortho-phosphate content. Separated solids, sludge and liquid effluent represented 5%, 15-40% and 75-83% of the mass of the raw slurry, respectively. A mechanical separation step prior to aeration allowed the export of 25-30% of total phosphorus for further use as organic fertiliser. A large amount of total phosphorus (e.g. 60-70%) was located in sludge while phosphorus remaining in liquid effluent was about 15-25%. Raw slurry separation and sufficient aeration allowed phosphorus to concentrate in the sludge. Insufficient aeration resulted in the release of phosphorus as dissolved ortho-phosphate within the liquid effluent. Finally, relevance of the agronomic use of the products was discussed and improvements of biological aerobic treatment to enhance phosphorus removal and/or recovery were considered.

Aerobiosis↗

PubMed1991

Effects of systemic aluminum on the resolution of a uremic and dietary phosphorus-dependent model of uremic osteomalacia in rats.

We have developed a model of osteomalacia that is dependent on both uremia and the feeding of a diet low in phosphorus and that can be reversed by subsequent dietary phosphorus repletion. The objectives for this study were to use this model to investigate the role of aluminum (Al) in both the induction and resolution of osteomalacia. Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were five-sixths nephrectomized and fed either low or normal dietary phosphorus, both with and without intraperitoneal Al injections. Uremic rats fed low phosphorus developed osteomalacia characterized by increased osteoid surface, volume, and thickness and osteoid maturation time and decreased mineralizing surface. Al-treated uremic rats fed low phosphorus were similarly affected, developing increased osteoid volume and thickness and osteoid maturation time and decreased osteoblastic surface, mineralizing surface, and bone formation rate. In addition, they had a significantly increased Al-positive surface. Al-treated uremic rats fed normal phosphorus had only increased osteoid thickness and aluminum-positive surface and decreased osteoblastic surface. Osteomalacic rats continuously treated with Al during the induction and phosphorus repletion stages had increased growth plate thickness, osteoid volume and thickness, and Al-positive surface and decreased osteoblastic and mineralizing surface. Mineralization in these rats was impaired to such a degree that no detectable double labels were present. Osteomalacic rats treated with Al during the induction phase but not during phosphorus repletion had increased osteoid surface and volume and Al-positive surface and decreased osteoblastic and mineralizing surface. Double labels were not detectable in these rats, either.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Aluminum↗

PubMed2003

Reducing the phosphorus concentration in diets for turkeys between 10 and 22 weeks of age.

1. An experiment lasting for 13 weeks was started at the beginning of week 10 with male turkeys weighing 5.38 kg. The experiment comprised three subsequent periods with adjusted metabolisable energy (ME) and nutrient concentrations from weeks 10 to 13, 14 to 17, and 18 to 22. Seven pens of 12 birds each were allocated to each of 5 treatments. Treatments differed in dietary phosphorus concentration and phytase supplementation (500 U/kg) only. Total phosphorus varied between treatments from 4.9 to 8.0 g/kg (weeks 10 to 13), from 4.4 to 7.5 g/kg (weeks 14 to 17) and from 3.5 to 7.0 g/kg (weeks 18 to 22). Phosphorus concentration was adjusted by different inclusions of monocalcium phosphate. Diets were pelleted and offered ad libitum. 2. A final body weight of, on average, 22.3 kg was achieved at the end of week 22. Body weight gain, feed consumption, feed conversion, toe ash, toe phosphorus and toe calcium were not significantly affected by dietary phosphorus concentration. There was no indication of an effect on mortality or on broken or deformed bones. 3. Phosphorus concentrations (g/kg diet) of 5.9, 5.4 and 4.4 without microbial phytase and of 4.9, 4.4 and 3.5 with microbial phytase, respectively, were sufficient in the three periods. As compared with the control, a reduction in phosphorus excretion of turkeys by 0.4 without phytase and by 0.5 with phytase was achieved without negative effects on turkeys. 4. Because the data demonstrate the great potential for a reduction in dietary phosphorus concentration, detailed requirement and availability studies with turkeys should follow.

6-Phytase↗

PubMed1977

Effect of long-term lithium administration on renal phosphorus handling.

Renal phosphorus handling was evaluated in 12 lithium carbonate-treated psychiatric patients. Serum phosphorus was normal and serum lithium values were within the therapeutic range in all subjects. Serum calcium concentrations measured in 6 of the patients were found to be within the normal range; in the same patients serum parathyroid hormone levels were normal in 4 and slightly elevated in 2. Phosphorus clearance (14 +/- 3 [se] ml/min) and tubular reabsorption of phosphorus (88 +/- 2%) during oral sodium bicarbonate loading were not significantly different from those in 10 healthy control subjects. In a subgroup of 5 patients and 5 control subjects, phosphorus excretion did not increase after bicarbonate loading. In these subjects, phosphorus excretion rates after bicarbonate loading were not different. Although experimental studies suggest that lithium inhibits renal cortical adenylate cyclase stimulation by parathyroid hormone, our data did not indicate any striking effect of long-term lithium administration on serum calcium and serum phosphorus or on renal phosphorus handling.

Adenylyl Cyclase Inhibitors↗