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PubMed2000

Identification of acetic acid bacteria by restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of a PCR-amplified fragment of the gene coding for 16S rRNA.

Acetic acid bacteria (AAB) irreversibly spoil wines and represent a serious problem. Limited studies on the ecology of AAB during winemaking have been done due to the lack of rapid and precise techniques for their identification. RFLP analysis of PCR-amplified fragment of 16S rDNA was performed on AAB reference strains. The amplified rDNAs were approximately 870-bp long for all AAB species while no amplicons were detected for lactic acid bacteria and yeasts. Out of the four restriction enzymes tested, TaqI was the most efficient one and divided the studied AAB into six groups. However, complete differentiation among collection strains of Acetobacter pasteurianus and Gluconoacetobacter hansenii was not possible.

Acetic Acid↗
PubMed2003

Spoilage of bottled red wine by acetic acid bacteria.

AIMS: To determine the bacterial species associated with an outbreak of spoilage in commercially bottled red wine where the bottles had been stored in an upright vertical compared with horizontal position. METHODS AND RESULTS: Bottled wines comprising Cabernet Sauvignon, Pinot Noir, Shiraz, Merlot and blended red varieties were examined for visible spoilage. Analysis of visibly affected and non-affected wines revealed a spectrum of aroma and flavour defects, ranging from loss of fruity aroma, staleness, oxidized character to overt volatile acidity. Only acetic acid bacteria, and not yeast or lactic acid bacteria, could be isolated from both spoiled and unspoiled wines and were found to grow only on Wallerstein Nutrient (WL) medium supplemented with 10% red wine or 1-2% ethanol. Analysis of the 16S rRNA region and RAPD-PCR analysis showed the isolates to be a closely related group of Acetobacter pasteurianus, but this group was differentiated from the group comprising beer, vinegar and cider strains. CONCLUSIONS: A. pasteurianus was the species considered responsible for the spoilage but the isolates obtained had atypical properties for this species. In particular, they failed to grow on WL nutrient medium without ethanol or wine supplementation. Storage of the bottles of wine containing A. pasteurianus in an upright vertical position specifically induced growth and spoilage in a proportion of the bottles under conditions that were inhibitory for horizontally stored bottles. We hypothesize that the upright position created a heterogeneous environment that allowed the growth of bacteria in only those bottles sealed with cork closures that had upper limit for the natural permeability to oxygen. Such a heterogeneous environment would not exist in horizontally stored bottles as the larger volume of wine adjacent to the cork would strongly compete with the bacteria for the oxygen as it diffuses through the cork closure. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: A low level of bacteria (acetic acid bacteria) in wine can proliferate and cause wine spoilage in bottles stored in an upright vertical as opposed to an horizontal position under conditions that would normally limit bacterial development.

Acetic Acid↗
PubMed2002

Biodirected epitaxial nanodeposition of polymers on oriented macromolecular templates.

Biodirected epitaxial nanodeposition of polymers was achieved on a template with an oriented molecular surface. Acetobacter xylinum synthesized a ribbon of cellulose I microfibrils onto a fixed, nematic ordered substrate of glucan chains with unique surface characteristics. The substrate directed the orientation of the motion due to the inverse force of the secretion during biosynthesis, and the microfibrils were aligned along the orientation of the molecular template. Using real-time video analysis, the patterns and rates of deposition were elucidated. Field emission scanning electron microscopy revealed that a strong molecular interaction allowed for the deposition of nascent biosynthesized 3.5-nm cellulose microfibrils with inter-microfibrillar spacings of 7-8 nm on the surface of the template. The cellulose was deposited parallel to the molecular orientation of the template. Directed cellulose synthesis and ordered movement of cells were observed only by using a nematic ordered substrate made from cellulose, and not from ordered crystalline cellulose substrates or ordered cellulose-related synthetic polymers such as polyvinyl alcohol. This unique relationship between directed biosynthesis and the ordered fabrication from the nano to the micro scales could lead to new methodologies for the design of functional materials with desired nanostructures.

Acetobacter↗
PubMed1990

Atomic-resolution structure of the cellulose synthase regulator cyclic diguanylic acid.

Cyclic diguanylic acid acts as a regulator for cellulose synthase activity in the bacterium Acetobacter xylinum. We report the x-ray crystal structure of the regulator at atomic resolution. The structure contains two independent molecules that adopt almost identical conformations. The two molecules form self-intercalated units that are stacked on each other. Two different G.G base-pairing modes occur between the stacks. The more stable one has two or possibly three hydrogen bonds between two guanines and is related to the type of hydrogen bonding that is believed to exist between G-rich strands at the ends of chromosomes.

Acetobacter↗
PubMed1996

Function of multiple heme c moieties in intramolecular electron transport and ubiquinone reduction in the quinohemoprotein alcohol dehydrogenase-cytochrome c complex of Gluconobacter suboxydans.

Alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) of acetic acid bacteria functions as the primary dehydrogenase of the ethanol oxidase respiratory chain, where it donates electrons to ubiquinone. ADH is a membrane-bound quinohemoprotein-cytochrome c complex which consists of subunits I (78 kDa), II (48 kDa), and III (14 kDa) and contains several hemes c as well as pyrroloquinoline quinone as prosthetic groups. To understand the role of the heme c moieties in the intramolecular electron transport and the ubiquinone reduction, the ADH complex of Gluconobacter suboxydans was separated into a subunit I/III complex and subunit II, then reconstituted into the complex. The subunit I/III complex, probably subunit I, contained 1 mol each of pyrroloquinoline quinone and heme c and exhibited significant ferricyanide reductase, but no Q1 reductase activities. Subunit II was a triheme cytochrome c and had no enzyme activity, but it enabled the subunit I/III complex to reproduce the Q1 and ferricyanide reductase activities. Hybrid ADH consisting of the subunit I/III complex of G. suboxydans ADH and subunit II of Acetobacter aceti ADH was constructed and it had showed a significant Q1 reductase activity, indicating that subunit II has a ubiquinone-binding site. Inactive ADH from G. suboxydans exhibiting only 10% of the Q1 and ferricyanide reductase activities of the active enzyme has been isolated separately from active ADH (Matsushita, K., Yakushi, T., Takaki, Y., Toyama, H., and Adachi, O (1995) J. Bacteriol. 177, 6552-6559). Using these active and inactive ADHs and also isolated subunit I/III complex, we performed kinetic studies which suggested that ADH contains four ferricyanide-reacting sites, one of which was detected in subunit I and the others in subunit II. One of the three ferricyanide-reacting sites in subunit II was defective in inactive ADH. The ferricyanide-reacting site remained inactive even after alkali treatment of inactive ADH and also after reconstituting the ADH complex from the subunits, in contrast to the restoration of Q1 reductase activity and the other ferricyanide reductase activities. Thus, the data suggested that the heme c in subunit I and two of the three heme c moieties in subunit II are involved in the intramolecular electron transport of ADH into ubiquinone, where one of the two heme c sites may work at, or close to, the ubiquinone-reacting site and another between that and the heme c site in subunit I. The remaining heme c moiety in subunit II may have a function other than the electron transfer from ethanol to ubiquinone in ADH.

Acetobacter↗
PubMed2000

Identification of essential amino acids in the bacterial alpha -mannosyltransferase aceA.

The alpha-mannosyltransferase AceA from Acetobacter xylinum belongs to the CaZY family 4 of retaining glycosyltransferases. We have identified a series of either highly conserved or invariant residues that are found in all family 4 enzymes as well as other retaining glycosyltransferases. These residues included Glu-287 and Glu-295, which comprise an EX(7)E motif and have been proposed to be involved in catalysis. Alanine replacements of each conserved residue were constructed by site-directed mutagenesis. The mannosyltransferase activity of each mutant was examined by both an in vitro transferase assay using recombinant mutant AceA expressed in Escherichia coli and by an in vivo rescue assay by expressing the mutant AceA in a Xanthomonas campestris gumH(-) strain. We found that only mutants K211A and E287A lost all detectable activity both in vitro and in vivo, whereas E295A retained residual activity in the more sensitive in vivo assay. H127A and S162A each retained reduced but significant activities both in vitro and in vivo. Secondary structure predictions of AceA and subsequent comparison with the crystal structures of the T4 beta-glucosyltransferase and MurG suggest that AceA Lys-211 and Glu-295 are involved in nucleotide sugar donor binding, leaving Glu-287 of the EX(7)E as a potential catalytic residue.

Acetobacter↗
PubMed1982

Alteration of in vivo cellulose ribbon assembly by carboxymethylcellulose and other cellulose derivatives.

In vivo cellulose ribbon assembly by the Gram-negative bacterium Acetobacter xylinum can be altered by incubation in carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), a negatively charged water-soluble cellulose derivative, and also by incubation in a variety of neutral, water-soluble cellulose derivatives. In the presence of all of these substituted celluloses, normal fasciation of microfibril bundles to form the typical twisting ribbon is prevented. Alteration of ribbon assembly is most extensive in the presence of CMC, which often induces synthesis of separate, intertwining bundles of microfibrils. Freeze-etch preparations of the bacterial outer membrane suggest that particles that are thought to be associated with cellulose synthesis or extrusion may be specifically organized to mediate synthesis of microfibril bundles. These data support the previous hypothesis that the cellulose ribbon of A. xylinum is formed by a hierarchical, cell-directed, self-assembly process. The relationship of these results to the regulation of cellulose microfibril size and wall extensibility in plant cell walls is discussed.

Acetobacter↗
PubMed1991

Evidence for a cyclic diguanylic acid-dependent cellulose synthase in plants.

Because numerous attempts to detect an activity for a cellulose synthase in plants have failed, we have taken a different approach toward detecting polypeptides involved in this process. The uniqueness of the structure and function of cyclic diguanylic acid (c-di-GMP) as an activator of the cellulose synthase of the bacterium Acetobacter xylinum makes it an attractive probe to use in a search for a c-di-GMP receptor that might be involved in the process in plants. Direct photolabeling with 32P-c-di-GMP has been used, therefore, to identify in plants two membrane polypeptides of 83 and 48 kD derived from cotton fibers that possess properties consistent with their being components of a c-di-GMP-dependent cellulose synthase. Based upon several criteria, the 48-kD species is proposed to be derived by proteolytic cleavage of the 83-kD polypeptide. Both polypeptides bind c-di-GMP with high affinity and specificity and show antigenic relatedness to the bacterial cellulose synthase, and the N-terminal sequence of the 48-kD polypeptide also indicates relatedness to the bacterial synthase. Ability to detect both cotton fiber polypeptides by photolabeling increases markedly in extracts derived from fibers entering the active phase of secondary wall cellulose synthesis. These results provide a basis for future work aimed at identifying and characterizing genes involved in cellulose synthesis in plants.

Acetobacter↗
PubMed2002

X-ray analysis of two antibiotic-synthesizing bacterial ester hydrolases: preliminary results.

Alpha-amino-acid ester hydrolases are multimeric enzymes of potential use in antibiotic production. Knowledge of their structure could help to engineer these enzymes into economically viable biocatalysts. The alpha-amino-acid ester hydrolases from Xanthomonas citri and Acetobacter turbidans have been crystallized. The X. citri enzyme crystallizes in a primitive monoclinic space group (unit-cell parameters a = 90.1, b = 125.8, c = 132.1 A, beta = 90.9 degrees ). The A. turbidans enzyme crystallizes in both a primitive orthorhombic (a = 99.1, b = 104.9, c = 284.9 A) and a body-centred cubic space group with a = b = c = 342.2 A. From both enzymes, diffraction-quality crystals (resolution 3.0 A or better) were obtained. Data-collection statistics are reported for data sets from both enzymes.

Acetobacter↗
PubMed1997

Construction and use of a versatile set of broad-host-range cloning and expression vectors based on the RK2 replicon.

The plasmid vectors described in this report are derived from the broad-host-range RK2 replicon and can be maintained in many gram-negative bacterial species. The complete nucleotide sequences of all of the cloning and expression vectors are known. Important characteristics of the cloning vectors are as follows: a size range of 4.8 to 7.1 kb, unique cloning sites, different antibiotic resistance markers for selection of plasmid-containing cells, oriT-mediated conjugative plasmid transfer, plasmid stabilization functions, and a means for a simple method for modification of plasmid copy number. Expression vectors were constructed by insertion of the inducible Pu or Pm promoter together with its regulatory gene xylR or xylS, respectively, from the TOL plasmid of Pseudomonas putida. One of these vectors was used in an analysis of the correlation between phosphoglucomutase activity and amylose accumulation in Escherichia coli. The experiments showed that amylose synthesis was only marginally affected by the level of basal expression from the Pm promoter of the Acetobacter xylinum phosphoglucomutase gene (celB). In contrast, amylose accumulation was strongly reduced when transcription from Pm was induced. CelB was also expressed with a very high induction ratio in Xanthomonas campestris. These experiments showed that the A. xylinum celB gene could not complement the role of the bifunctional X. campestris phosphoglucomutase-phosphomannomutase gene in xanthan biosynthesis. We believe that the vectors described here are useful for cloning experiments, gene expression, and physiological studies with a wide range of bacteria and presumably also for analysis of gene transfer in the environment.

Acetobacter↗
PubMed1997

Characterization of an insertion sequence, IS12528, from Gluconobacter suboxydans.

A novel insertion sequence element, IS12528, was found to be associated with inactivation of the alcohol dehydrogenase by insertion in the adhA gene, which encodes the primary dehydrogenase subunit of the three-component membrane-bound alcohol dehydrogenase complex in Gluconobacter suboxydans. Cloning and sequencing analyses revealed that IS12528 was 905 bp in length and had a terminal inverted repeat of 18 bp. In addition, IS12528 was found to generate a 3-bp duplication (TMA, where M represents C or A) at the inserted site upon transposition. IS12528 encoded one long product of 274 amino acids that was rich in basic amino acids. This protein showed significant homology with putative transposases of the IS1031 family isolated from Acetobacter xylinum, which belongs to another genus of acetic acid bacteria. IS12528-like sequences were distributed in a wide variety of acetic acid bacteria, as determined by Southern hybridization and PCR. These observations suggest that IS12528 is one of the insertion sequences that are responsible for genetic instability leading to deficiencies in various physiological properties in a variety of acetic acid bacteria.

Acetobacter↗
PubMed1998

Cocoa fermentations conducted with a defined microbial cocktail inoculum.

Cocoa fermentations were performed in wooden boxes under the following four experimental regimens: beans naturally fermented with wild microflora; aseptically prepared beans with no inoculum; and beans inoculated with a defined cocktail containing microorganisms at a suitable concentration either at zero time or by using phased additions at appropriate times. The cocktail used consisted of a yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. chevalieri, two lactic acid bacterial species, Lactobacillus lactis and Lactobacillus plantarum, and two acetic acid bacterial species, Acetobacter aceti and Gluconobacter oxydans subsp. suboxydans. The parameters measured were cell counts (for yeasts, filamentous fungi, lactic acid bacteria, acetic acid bacteria, and spore formers, including reisolation and identification of all residual cell types), sugar, ethanol, acetic acid, and lactic acid contents (and contents of other organic acids), pH, and temperature. A cut test for bean quality and a sensorial analysis of chocolate made from the beans were also performed. The natural fermentation mimicked exactly the conditions in 800-kg boxes on farms. The aseptic box remained largely free of microflora throughout the study, and no significant biochemical changes occurred. With the zero-time inoculum the fermentation was almost identical to the natural fermentation. The fermentation with the phased-addition inoculum was similar, but many changes in parameters were slower and less pronounced, which led to a slightly poorer end product. The data show that the nearly 50 common species of microorganisms found in natural fermentations can be replaced by a judicious selection and concentration of members of each physiological group. This is the first report of successful use of a defined, mixed starter culture in such a complex fermentation, and it should lead to chocolate of more reliable and better quality.

Acetic Acid↗
PubMed2001

Characterization of acetic acid bacteria in traditional acetic acid fermentation of rice vinegar (komesu) and unpolished rice vinegar (kurosu) produced in Japan.

Bacterial strains were isolated from samples of Japanese rice vinegar (komesu) and unpolished rice vinegar (kurosu) fermented by the traditional static method. Fermentations have never been inoculated with a pure culture since they were started in 1907. A total of 178 isolates were divided into groups A and B on the basis of enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus-PCR and random amplified polymorphic DNA fingerprinting analyses. The 16S ribosomal DNA sequences of strains belonging to each group showed similarities of more than 99% with Acetobacter pasteurianus. Group A strains overwhelmingly dominated all stages of fermentation of both types of vinegar. Our results indicate that appropriate strains of acetic acid bacteria have spontaneously established almost pure cultures during nearly a century of komesu and kurosu fermentation.

Acetic Acid↗
PubMed2003

Macromolecular structure of cellulose studied by second-harmonic generation imaging microscopy.

The macromolecular structure of purified cellulose samples is studied by second-harmonic generation (SHG) imaging microscopy. We show that the SHG contrast in both Valonia and Acetobacter cellulose strongly resembles that of collagen from animal tissues, both in terms of morphology and polarization anisotropy. Polarization analysis shows that microfibrils in each lamella are highly aligned and ordered and change directions by 90 degrees in adjacent lamellae. The angular dependence of the SHG intensity fits well to a cos2 theta distribution, which is characteristic of the electric dipole interaction. Enzymatic degradation of Valonia fibers by cellulase is followed in real time by SHG imaging and results in exponential decay kinetics, showing that SHG imaging microscopy is ideal for monitoring dynamics in biological systems.

Acetobacter↗
PubMed2004

Structural changes in the cells of some bacteria during population growth: a Fourier transform infrared-attenuated total reflectance study.

Structural changes occurring in the cells of several bacteria during their growth curves have been investigated by Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy using the sampling technique of attenuated total reflectance (ATR). Spectra reflect all of the components of the cells, including the cell walls, cell membranes, internal structures, and the cytoplasm. The bacteria studied were Bacillus stearothermophilus, Halobacterium salinarum, Halococcus morrhuae, and Acetobacter aceti. All species showed significant spectral changes during their growth curves, indicating structural changes in the cells during increases in cell numbers. The major change for B. stearothermophilus was in the lipid content, which was at a maximum during the exponential phase of the growth curve. For the halophiles H. salinarum and H. morrhuae, the major change was that the concentration of sulfate ion in the cells varied during the growth curve and was at a maximum during the mid-part of the exponential phase of the growth curve. A. aceti cells showed increasing polysaccharide content during the growth curve as well as maximum lipid content during the exponential phase of growth.

Acetobacter↗
PubMed2001

Production of bacterial cellulose from alternate feedstocks.

Production of bacterial cellulose by Acetobacter xylinum ATCC 10821 and 23770 in static cultures was tested from unamended food process effluents. Effluents included low-solids (LS) and high-solids (HS) potato effluents, cheese whey permeate (CW), or sugar beet raffinate (CSB). Strain 23770 produced 10% less cellulose from glucose than did strain 10821 and diverted more glucose to gluconate. Unamended HS, CW, and CSB were unsuitable for cellulose production by either strain, and LS was unsuitable for production by strain 10821. However, strain 23770 produced 17% more cellulose from LS than from glucose, indicating that unamended LS could serve as a feedstock for bacterial cellulose.

Acetobacter↗
PubMed2006

Acidic extracellular proteases from microrganisms of fairly acidic niche.

The protein population secreted from three wine-contaminant microorganisms was studied by two-dimensional electrophoresis and screened for proteases. Proteolytic enzymes were electrophoretically purified and their activity, optimum pH and temperature determined. The protease of Acetobacter aceti maintained its activity over the range of pHs 3.0-5.0, thus being of potential biotechnological interest.

Acetobacter↗
PubMed1991

Biogenesis of bacterial cellulose.

Cellulose is the most abundant biological polymer on Earth. It is found in wood and cotton, and forms the basic structural foundation of the cell wall of almost all eukaryotic plants. Bacteria are known to secrete cellulose as part of their metabolism of glucose and other sugars. The focus of this review is upon bacterial cellulose synthesis. We emphasize recent literature directed primarily upon Acetobacter xylinum, which has been most widely studied. Our review covers the following topics relating to cellulose synthesis: genetics, biochemistry, ultrastructure, growth conditions, and ecological considerations as they relate to the diversity of microbes capable of synthesizing this abundant, unique polymer--cellulose.

Acetobacter↗