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PubMed2003

Thermal benefit of sibling presence in the newborn rabbit.

Newborn rabbits compete vigorously for the mother's milk, and survivors benefit from littermate deaths. Here we report that rabbit pups also may benefit from littermate presence in terms of increased thermal efficiency. Pups nursed normally once a day by their mother but otherwise raised alone had a lower probability of survival, lower body temperature, and lower efficiency of converting milk into body mass than their siblings raised with littermates. The contribution of a more favorable thermal environment to the better growth and survival of group-raised pups was supported by the finding that single pups raised at higher ambient temperatures grew more rapidly than single pups raised at lower temperatures. These effects were most clearly seen across Days 2 to 5, after which time differences between treatment groups were no longer significant. Thus, the results of this study suggest that the benefits as well as costs of having siblings must be weighed against each other when considering the manner in which sibling presence influences individual development and survival.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Interactions between sleeping position and feeding on cardiorespiratory activity in preterm infants.

Infants sleeping in the prone position are at greater risk for sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). Sleep position-dependent changes in cardiorespiratory activity may contribute to this increased risk. Cardiorespiratory activity is also affected by feeding. Twenty prematurely-born infants were studied at 31-36 weeks postconceptional age while sleeping in the prone and supine positions. Heart rate, respiratory rate, and patterns of variability were recorded during interfeed intervals, and effects of position and time after feeding were analyzed by repeated measures analyses of variance. There were significant effects of both sleeping position and time after feeding. Heart rate is higher and heart period variability is lower in the prone position, and the effects of sleeping position on cardiac functioning are more pronounced during the middle of the intrafeed interval. In preterm infants, autonomic responses to nutrient processing modulate the cardiorespiratory effects of sleeping position. Prone sleeping risk may vary with time after feeding.

Electrocardiography↗
PubMed1977

Response to auditory stimuli in 6- and 9-week-old human infants.

Response to 5-sec, 75-dB complex sounds was studied in groups of 24 infants each at 6 and 9 weeks of age. Under conditions appropriate for eliciting orienting, no significant cardiac response appeared at 6 weeks, but a significantly decelerative response did appear at 9weeks. Measurement of noncardiac responses suggested that sucking suppression is also a component of orienting to sound, that the status of eye-opening is equivocal, and that previously reported eye-movement responses are probably a component of startle. We concluded that age changes in orienting may occur in young infants, even when state is controlled, and that the probability of orienting varies with the kind of stimuli employed.

Acoustic Stimulation↗
PubMed1977

The relationship between sucking and grasping in the human newborn: a precursor of hand-mouth coordination?

The relationship between grasping and sucking, a possible precursor of hand-mouth coordination, was examined in human newborns of varying gestational ages. Grasping was elicited by rapidly tilting the infant backwards while he rested on a padded board and held a grasp bar. Infants were tilted 4 times under each of 3 conditions: grasping, sucking, and grasping-while-sucking. The dependent variables were strength and duration of grasp and frequency and amplitude of sucks during the 15 sec following the tilt. The results indicated that grasping did not affect sucking but that sucking increased the strength and the duration of the grasp. Furthermore, either response system was more highly correlated with indices of maturity of the central nervous system when elicited in the presence rather than the absence of the other. We conclude that in human newborns sucking may be dominant over grasping but that both are part of an integrated system which may form the basis for the development of hand-mouth coordination.

Hand↗
PubMed1980

Learned responses to movement in neonates.

Numerous previous reports have pointed to the importance of movement (vestibular) stimulation in early infancy. Nevertheless, we have currently no clear understanding of these effects. The present paper looks at the role of movement stimulation in the modification of inborn organized patterns of response. Two laboratory experiments are reported in which newborn infants were presented with a cue (movement stimulus) which was either paired with dextrose presentation (experimental group) or not paired (control group). The experimental and control groups differed on the pattern of suckling in extinction, indicating an effect due to the contiguous presentation of movement and dextrose. Those experiments provide an analog for some naturally occurring conditions in early infancy and support some Soviet observations on the development of the earliest conditioned responses.

Conditioning, Classical↗
PubMed1982

The role of perioral sensation in nipple attachment by weanling rat pups.

Injecting .05 ml of 1% lidocaine into each vibrissal pad, or cutting the infraorbital nerves, abolished nipple attachment in weanling Wistar rat pups. Nipple attachment recovered following infraorbital section. Injecting the local anesthetic intraperitoneally, or into the region of the masseter muscles, did not disrupt attachment, indicating that the effect of the drug on suckling was specific to the site of injection and could not be attributed to systemic toxicity or paralysis of the masseter muscles. Performance on an olfactory-guided orientation task was not disrupted by lidocaine, indicating that the drug did not render pups anosmic. Tactile sensation in the vibrissal pads, rhinarium, and upper lip was abolished after injecting the drug into the vibrissal pads. Vibrissal movement was absent following injection of lidocaine into either the vibrissal pads or the region of the masseter muscles. Shaving the vibrissae did not disrupt nipple attachment. The results are interpreted as suggesting that the nipples' textural qualities elicit attachment in weanling pups.

Animals↗
PubMed1987

Regulation of nursing in chimpanzees.

The regulation of nursing was studied in captive chimpanzees from birth to 6 months of age. It was asked whether regulation was predictable or timing was irregular. A search for unimodal frequency distributions resulted in a distinction among nursing bouts, nursing episodes (bouts with brief interruptions) and nursing pauses. The frequency distributions of these types were either normal with very large standard deviations or exponential (i.e., randomly terminated). This implies a very irregular timing. Longer nursing episodes were followed by somewhat longer pauses; pauses with daytime sleep (that were relatively long) were followed by longer nursing. However, these regulatory effects were only slight. Most of this loose regulation of nursing was due to the infant, as the mothers did not put the infant on the breast and usually were permissive. Comparisons with humans suggest a similarly loose organization as well as frequent feeding in societies that provide relatively unlimited access to the breast. The regular 4-hr, meal-like schedule in industrial countries seems mainly to be due to human mothers and their advisors.

Animals↗
PubMed1988

The effect of nonnutritive sucking on heart rate in preterm infants.

A laboratory and a field experiment used within-subject designs to test the hypothesis that nonnutritive sucking (NNS) reduces heart rate (HR) in preterm infants. Infants in Experiment A were provided a standard pacifier nipple for 30 min under strictly controlled conditions. In the field Experiment B, nursing staff provided infants with a standard pacifier during alternate intervals in a sequence of four interfeed intervals spanning 12 hr. NNS significantly reduced average HR in each experiment. Given the strongly positive relationship between HR and energy expenditure, these results suggest that NNS reduces energy expenditure in preterm infants. Such an effect, in turn, could help to explain how the opportunity to engage in NNS enhances growth in preterms.

Arousal↗
PubMed1992

Blood pressure increases in response to feeding in the term neonate.

We studied blood pressure and heart rate of 18 medically well newborn babies before, during, and after feeding. Seven were breast-fed and 11 bottle-fed and all were studied between 24 and 92 hr of age. There was an increase in heart rate associated with sucking on a pacifier but no additional increase with feeding. By 30-60 min after feeding, heart rate had returned to baseline value. Blood pressure, however, did increase in response to feeding and showed a greater increase in the breast-fed group than in the bottle-fed group. Systolic blood pressure rose from 72 mmHg in the basal state to 85 mmHg during the first 3 min of feeding in the bottle-fed babies and from 73 to 99 mmHg during comparable periods in the breast-fed babies. The results for diastolic blood pressure were similar except that changes within the bottle-fed group were not statistically significant. Bottle-fed babies rose only from 42 to 47 mmHg while breast-fed babies rose from 42 to 61 mmHg from basal conditions to feeding. Blood pressure responses to feeding may have implications for susceptibility to necrotizing enterocolitis, for future blood pressure liability in adulthood and for later hypertensive disease.

Arousal↗
PubMed1993

Enhanced ethanol intake in preweanling rats following exposure to ethanol in a nursing context.

Several studies have confirmed that diet selection patterns of adult rats are at least partially established as a result of early experiences with food-related stimuli present in the milk of a lactating female (e.g., Capretta & Rawls, 1974; Galef & Clark, 1972; Galef & Henderson 1972). The present experiments were designed to investigate whether preweanling rats would similarly modify their acceptance of an ethanol solution following exposure to this cue in a nursing context. In Experiment 1, 8-, 12-, and 16-day-old rats were given ethanol, delivered intraorally in compound with milk, while given the opportunity to suckle an anesthetized dam. Subsequent testing revealed that 12- and 16-day-old subjects evidenced enhanced intake of the ethanol relative to controls, while 8-day-olds did not. Finally, the oldest (16 days of age) subjects also expressed a conditioned aversion to the milk when tested 24 hr after conditioning and ethanol-ingestion testing. Experiment 2 demonstrated that the critical factor for ethanol conditioning was the opportunity to suckle, rather than the simultaneous presence of milk. Finally, the aversion to milk observed in Experiment 1 was shown to have resulted from long-delay learning, due to the ingestion of a sufficient dose of ethanol during testing to serve as an aversive unconditioned stimulus (Exp. 3).

Alcohol Drinking↗
PubMed1994

Intracerebroventricular injection of renin in the neonatal rat reveals a precocious sodium appetite that is dissociated from renin-aroused thirst.

Previous research on the ontogeny of sodium appetite in the rat has shown that sodium deficit first engenders sodium intake at 12 days of age, whereas direct stimulation of the brain renin--angiotensin system by intracranial injection of renin increases intake of NaCl solution as early as 3 days postnatally. Similar activation of brain angiotensin also increases thirst, so that the specificity of the precocious sodium intake remains undetermined. In this article we report experiments that dissociate neonatal renin-evoked sodium appetite and thirst, and establish the specificity of the appetite. Our findings confirm that sodium appetite can first be discerned at 3 days of age, and show that it rapidly develops until 12 days of age. During this developmental window, renin-evoked sodium appetite is dissociated from thirst because (a) NaCl is preferred to water, (b) the appetite develops faster than thirst, and (c) 3-day-old renin-stimulated pups will avidly lick dry NaCl. These results show that activation of brain angiotensin in the 3-day-old rat pup evokes a precocious and specific sodium appetite.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1994

Comparisons of nipple attachment and incisor growth among four species of voles (Microtus).

Patterns of nipple attachment and incisor growth were compared between four species of voles (Microtus). Offspring of two highly social species, prairie voles (M. ochrogaster) and pine voles (M. pinetorum), were shown to cling tightly to the nipples of their dams on Days 2, 6, and 10. This pattern contrasted to weak nipple attachment displayed by two less-social species, meadow voles (M. pennsylvanicus) and montane voles (M. montanus). Lengths of the upper (maxillary) and lower (mandibular) incisors of the four species were recorded throughout the first 10 days of age and in adults. Incisors of the pine and prairie voles typically erupted earlier and grew longer than those of the meadow or montane voles during the first few days of development. Incisors grew at a substantial rate in the latter two species, such that they equalled or surpassed the incisor lengths of the former two species as Day 10 and weaning approached. Patterns of incisor growth, in part, reflected those for nipple attachment, but do not appear to account substantially for differences in nipple attachment.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Infant salt taste: developmental, methodological, and contextual factors.

Two studies investigated the human infant's response to salt during development. In the first study, measures of intake and sucking were obtained from two groups of infants, newborns and 4- to 8-month-olds, in response to brief presentations of two concentrations of salt (0.2 or 0.4 M) and water. For several measures of sucking and for intake, there were significant age and concentration effects. Generally, newborn infants tended to reject saline relative to water more than did 4- to 8-month-old infants. This result, consistent with previously published research, suggests a developmental change in salt acceptability and, probably, sensitivity in the human infant. In the second longitudinal study, the response to salted (0.15 M) versus unsalted formulas was evaluated monthly in infants 2 to 7 months of age. Again, a developmental change was observed: Based on some sucking measures, younger infants appeared to be indifferent to the salted formula relative to the unsalted formula whereas older infants tended to reject the salted formula, presumably because either it was less sweet than the unsalted formulas or because it was novel. These data are consistent with the hypothesis developed from animal model studies that during early human postnatal development, transductive elements sensitive to saltiness mature.

Dose-Response Relationship, Drug↗
PubMed1992

The mechanism of suckling in two species of infant mammal: miniature pigs and long-tailed macaques.

Suckling is the form of feeding unique to infant mammals. The mechanism used by infant mammals to withdraw liquid from the nipple is the subject of considerable debate. Suckling has been examined in two species of infant mammals: miniature pigs and long-tailed macaques. In both species radio-opaque markers were inserted into the tongue and jaws; the movements of the jaw and tongue (and also of specific regions within the tongue) plus the movement of milk containing barium were studied by high-speed cineradiography (100 and 150 frames/sec). In the case of macaques, simultaneous pressure transducer recordings were also made. In both species, liquid moved out of the nipple as the intraoral space was expanded by a combination of tongue movement (negative pressure pumping) coupled with jaw opening. There was no evidence for expression (positive pressure on the nipple) in either species, strongly supporting the view that a suction mechanism is responsible for acquisition of milk from the nipple. Subsequent intraoral transport was different in the two species. The pigs used a second pump mechanism at the base of the tongue to transport liquid through the pillars of the fauces into the valleculae. The monkeys used a "squeeze-back" mechanism similar to the transport mechanism documented for adult macaques. Further work with other species can test our tentative hypothesis that all mammals use a negative pressure suction for acquisition, but, as is true for adult mammals, infants may use different transport mechanisms to form and move the bolus.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Neurodevelopmental care in the NICU.

Neurodevelopmental care, which is any NICU intervention undertaken to improve neurodevelopmental outcome, includes NICU design, nursing routines, nursing care plans, management of pain, feeding methods and, most importantly, encouraging parental involvement with their NICU infant. Recognition that sensory stimulation can overwhelm preterm infants and increase physiologic signs of stress led to attempts to reduce sensory input. More recent approaches judiciously add back soothing sensory input (e.g., therapeutic touch, soft music). Circadian light/dark cycles and physical activity improve preterm growth. Attention to infant positioning and handling affects physiologic variables and joint mobility, if not functional motor abilities. A highly organized system of care for NICU infants is Als' NIDCAP (i.e., Neonatal Individualized Developmental Care and Assessment Program). Although NIDCAP may reduce need for respiratory support and hospital length of stay, it does not significantly influence neurodevelopmental outcome at 2-3 years. Pain management includes benign interventions (e.g., nonnutritive sucking, oral glucose), but the prolonged use of narcotics must be balanced against the consequences of sedation and dependency. The foremost challenge for NICUs remains parent disenfranchisement. Kangaroo care, which involves parent/infant skin-to-skin contact, improves preterm growth, decreases nosocomial infections and may shorten hospital length of stay. A great deal of work needs to be done to identify and demonstrate efficacy of specific interventions and changes that humanize the NICU, encourage parental involvement, support infant development and optimize preterm neurodevelopmental outcomes.

Breast Feeding↗