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PubMed2001

Effect of regular winter swimming on the activity of the sympathoadrenal system before and after a single cold water immersion.

This study deals with the adaptation of the sympathoadrenal responses to an acute cold water immersion in ordinary winter swimmers. Hormonal responses were determined at the beginning of the winter swimming period in the autumn and after regular swimming for one and three months. Water temperature in the river was 10 degrees C at the beginning and 4 degrees C after one and three months. The mean duration of the test immersion was 36 s. Plasma catecholamine levels determined before the test immersion decreased with the winter swimming period for one month (NA, p < 0.001, A, p < 0.01). The test immersion significantly increased noradrenaline levels (p < 0.001). Plasma adrenaline and serum cortisol levels were increased or decreased by the immersion. After 1 month's swimming the test immersion to 4 degrees C increased noradrenaline to a similar level than the immersion to 10 degrees C at the beginning. Regularly practiced winter swimming for three months led to diminished catecholamine levels measured immediately after the test immersion (p < 0.01). The results suggest that cold adaptation induced by winter swimming attenuates the catecholamine responses to cold water. Adrenaline responses are also affected by its level prior to the immersion.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed2002

Effects of 4 weeks of creatine supplementation in junior swimmers on freestyle sprint and swim bench performance.

To determine whether 4 weeks of oral creatine (Cr) supplementation could enhance single freestyle sprint and swim bench performance in experienced competitive junior swimmers, 10 young men and 10 young women (x age = 16.4 +/- 1.8 years) participated in a 27-day supplementation period and pre- and posttesting sessions. In session 1 (presupplementation testing), subjects swam one 50-m freestyle and then (after approximately 5 minutes of active recovery) one 100-m freestyle at maximum speed. Blood lactate was measured before and 1 minute after each swim trial. Forty-eight hours later, height, mass, and the sum of 6 skinfolds were recorded, and a Biokinetic Swim Bench total work output test (2 x 30-second trials, with a 10-minute passive recovery in between) was undertaken. After the pretests were completed, participants were divided into 2 groups (n = 10, Cr; and n = 10, placebo) by means of matched pairs on the basis of gender and 50-m swim times. A Cr loading phase of 20 g x d(-1) for 5 days was then instituted, followed by a maintenance phase of 5 g x d(-1) for 22 days. Postsupplementation testing replicated the presupplementation tests. Four weeks of Cr supplementation did not influence single sprint performance in the pool or body mass and composition. However, 30-second swim bench total work scores for trial 1 and trial 2 increased after Cr (p < 0.05) but not placebo ingestion. Postexercise blood lactate values were not different after supplementation for the 50- and 100-m sprint trials either within or between groups. It was concluded that 4 weeks of Cr supplementation did not significantly improve single sprint performance in competitive junior swimmers, but it did enhance swim bench test performance.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1992

The role of premotor interneurons in phase-dependent modulation of a cutaneous reflex during swimming in Xenopus laevis embryos.

Phase-dependent reflex modulation during fictive "swimming" in Xenopus laevis embryos has been examined with intracellular recordings from rhythmically active spinal neurons. (1) At rest, cutaneous trunk or tail skin stimulation evokes EPSPs in motoneurons and premotor excitatory and inhibitory interneurons of the opposite motor system. During swimming, these EPSPs can only be evoked during the depolarized phase of activity and can then produce extra action potentials that lead to phase-dependent reflexes in ventral roots. On the stimulated side, IPSPs are evoked in rhythmic neurons that can block centrally generated action potentials if the stimulus coincides with the inhibited phase of the swimming cycle. This inhibition suppresses ventral root discharge in a phase-dependent manner. (2) The presence of premotor interneurons in the crossed reflex pathway suggests two parallel routes for cutaneous excitation to reach the motoneurons, one direct and the other indirect through excitatory premotor interneurons. During swimming, the crossed excitation through both routes is gated by the rhythm-generating circuit to allow summation in motoneurons only during the depolarized phase of the swim cycle. (3) Following phase-dependent reflexes, the frequency of swimming is raised for several cycles, a phenomenon that requires sensory activation of premotor rhythm-generating interneurons. The results provide evidence on the role of identified premotor spinal interneurons in phase-dependent reflex modulation.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

The influence of anthropometrical and flexibility parameters on the results of breaststroke swimming.

The aim of this investigation was to study the possible relationships between anthropometry, flexibility and specific swimming results in female breaststroke swimmers. Subjects were 125 female breaststroke swimmers in age of 11-18 years. Body height and mass were measured and BMI (kg/m2 ) and Broca index (body height in cm - 100 = weight in kg) were calculated. The flexibility of hip external rotation, knee external rotation, ankle dorsal flexion and ankle supination were measured with plastic goniometer. 100 m breaststroke swimming using kickboard and legs only was used as a swimming performance parameter. The number of kicks was also fixed. Horizontal jumping ability was measured using a simple standing broad jump (cm) minus body height (cm). As a rule, flexibility in different joints did not depend on anthropometrical parameters. Only knee external rotation and ankle dorsal flexion correlated significantly with body mass (r = -0.221 and r = -0.210, respectively) and BMI (r = 0.242 and r = 0.204, respectively). The relationship between flexibility in different joints, as a rule, was not significant. Stepwise multiple regression analysis indicated that from the used anthropometrical parameters the most important was the body height, which explained 11.1% (R2 x 100) of the 100 m breaststroke swim results using legs only. The most important parameter from the measured flexibility indices was knee external rotation (11.1%, R2 x 100). Combination of knee external rotation and ankle supination increased the determination coefficient to 24.4%. Finally, three flexibility measures (knee external rotation, ankle supination, hip external rotation) explained the swimming results by 28.2% (R2 x 100). It was concluded that the good flexibility is more important than single anthropometrical parameters when explaining the breaststroke swimming results using kickboard and legs only.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1991

[Changes in the electrophysiological parameters of hypertensives under the influence of therapeutic swimming].

Studies were carried out on patients with hypertension I and II stages to examine the influence of therapeutic swimming on cerebral activity and heart function. The authors investigated 30 persons (mean age of 48.5 +/- 9.5 years) divided into 2 groups: first--experimental including 20 subjects, who participated in a course of therapeutic swimming (according to our methods) for a period of 4 months and second--control, composed of 10 persons, who did not swim. Electroencephalograms and electrocardiograms were recorded from subjects of both groups before and after 4 months of swimming as simultaneously with this blood pressure was measured several times. The results showed that therapeutic swimming affected favourably brain bioelectrical activity (improved regulation and modulation of the rhythm, reduced dysrhythmia and did not increase the number of pathological waves) as well as cardiovascular system of the examined persons with hypertension of the experimental group as statistically significant lowering of blood pressure was induced, while the investigated parameters showed opposite reactions in the persons of the control group. On the basis of positive changes in the investigated parameters the therapeutic swimming is recommended to be included in the complex the therapy of the persons suffering from hypertension I and II stages.

Adult↗
PubMed1991

Metabolic responses to drafting during front crawl swimming.

We examined the metabolic responses to front crawl swimming when following directly behind (drafting) another swimmer. Seven trained male swimmers participated as subjects. VO2max (l.min-1) was measured during a progressive tethered swim test and was also estimated from a 20 s sample of expired air collected immediately after an all-out, 549 m (600 yard) swim. On different days, each subject performed two 549 m trials at 95% of his maximal swim velocity, one with drafting and one without drafting, using a counter-balanced design. Underwater pace lights were used to establish the predetermined swim velocity. Drafting significantly reduced post-exercise VO2 (2.85 +/- 0.63 vs 3.12 +/- 0.66 l.min-1), blood lactate (3.4 +/- 0.6 vs 5.0 +/- 0.5 mM), and rating of perceived exertion (11.7 +/- 0.4 vs 14.9 +/- 0.5) (P less than 0.05). A repeated measures ANOVA (condition X distance) also revealed significant reductions in HR during the 549 m swim (137.7 vs 146.8 beats.min-1) (P less than 0.05). The results indicate that drafting results in a decrease in energy expenditure for the range of speeds examined.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Effect of baclofen, a GABAB-agonist, on forced swimming-induced immobility in mice.

The effect of baclofen, a GABAB-agonist, was studied on both forced swimming-induced immobility and isoprenaline-induced enhancement of forced swimming-induced immobility in mice. (+/-) Baclofen (0.5 and 1 mg/kg), and (-) baclofen (0.5, 1 and 2 mg/kg) attenuated forced swimming-induced immobility. The effect of baclofen was not reversed by bicuculline, a GABAA-antagonist. Baclofen also reduced isoprenaline-induced enhancement of forced swimming-induced immobility. On concomitant administration of a subeffective dose of baclofen with a subeffective dose of propranolol, desipramine and amitriptyline, a potentiating effect was observed. These results are corroborative of our previous finding that GABAergic agents, particularly GABAB-receptors, play a role in the modulation of despair behavior in mice and in the action of antidepressant drugs. Baclofen (5 mg/kg) did not produce any significant effect on forced swimming-induced immobility, but reduced significantly the locomotor activity of the animals. Lower doses (0.5 and 1 mg/kg) of baclofen, which reduced the forced swimming-induced immobility, did not affect the locomotor activity. At higher and lower tissue concentrations of the drug, involvement of different receptor populations is suggested.

Amitriptyline↗
PubMed1990

Aerobic metabolism and swimming energetics of the painted turtle, Chrysemys picta.

Oxygen consumption rates (VO2) were measured for painted turtles (Chrysemys picta) swimming in a respirometer at controlled speeds. Sustained specific swimming speeds ranged from 0.75 to 1.52 body lengths (L) per s. Over most of this range endurance exceeded 30 min. VO2 increased curvillinearly with swimming speed (U) and the maximum active rate was 9 times resting (0.26 ml O2/min), and 3 times routine (0.64 ml O2/min). Mass specific metabolic scope was 228 ml O2/(kg.h), similar to that reported for other active chelonians. Cost of transport increased from 3.86 to 5.72 J/(kg.m) over the speed range tested. Swimming costs for rowing painted turtles are greater than those for marine reptiles utilizing anguilliform or lift-producing hydrofoil propulsion. The increased swimming cost for the amphibious painted turtle suggests that morphological specializations permitting effective terrestrial transport, increase energetic expenditures during swimming.

Animals↗
PubMed1989

Influence of body hair removal on physiological responses during breaststroke swimming.

Nine male collegiate swimmers (EXP) were studied 8 d before (PRE) and 1 d after (POST) shaving the hair from their arms, legs, and exposed trunk. A control group (CON, N = 4) of their teammates was also tested at these times but did not remove body hair. In PRE and POST, distance per stroke (SL), VO2, heart rate (HR), and post-swim blood lactate concentration (BL) were measured during a 365.8 m breaststroke swim at approximately 90% effort. Subjects also performed a tethered breaststroke swim with retarding forces of 6.27, 7.75, and 9.26 kg. The EXP group experienced a significant (P less than 0.05) reduction in BL (mean +/- SE: 8.48 +/- 0.78 to 6.74 +/- 0.74 mmol.l-1), a decreased VO2 (3.60 +/- 0.15 to 3.27 +/- 0.14 l.min-1), an increase in SL (2.07 +/- 0.08 to 2.31 +/- 0.10 m.stroke-1), and an insignificant (P = 0.08) decline in HR (174 +/- 5 to 168 +/- 4 beats.min-1) during the free swim. The CON group showed no changes in BL, SL, or HR. During the tethered swim, there were no significant PRE-POST differences in VO2, HR, or BL for either group. In a separate group of swimmers (nine who shaved body hair and nine controls), removing body hair significantly reduced the rate of velocity decay during a prone glide after a maximal underwater leg push-off. It is concluded that removing body hair reduces active drag, thereby decreasing the physiological cost of swimming.

Adult↗
PubMed1989

[Characteristics of the neuropsychological development of infants during the first year of life, engaged in swimming].

The authors present the results of studying the neuropsychic development of 100 children of the first year of life engaged in swimming and of 50 children of the same age not engaged in swimming. The neuropsychic development was appraised in accordance with the Tables given in the Methodological Recommendations worked out by the Gorky Research Institute in 1982. The swimming was found to cause a marked advance in the neuropsychic development of the children. That advance was discovered even after a month since the swimming onset. The development of movements and emotions was influenced first of all and to a greater degree. Later the swimming produced a favourable effect on the development of speech. The effect of the swimming on the neuropsychic development was more pronounced in boys than in girls.

Child Development↗
PubMed1989

[Swimming induced vascular headache].

We experienced 3 cases of characteristic headache induced by swimming. The first case was a 51-year-old woman who suffered from a sudden attack of throbbing headache in the parieto-temporal region, accompanied by nausea, after 20 minutes of swimming practice in a pool. The headache disappeared after about 3 hours of bed rest. However, soon after she began to practice swimming in the pool a few days later, throbbing headache in the same region recurred. Though the headache improved upon bed rest, dull pain was persistent till bed time that evening. Two days later, as she squatted down with alacrity at her home, she felt intense pain in the whole head as if struck with a hammer. She was seen at our neurological clinic the following day but was found to be neurologically normal with a blood pressure of 130/70 and a pulse rate of 78/min. Blood chemistry tests, hematology, head digital subtraction angiography, cerebral CT and X-ray films of the cervical spine were all normal. After swimming was prohibited, the prognosis was good and the patient experienced no episode of headache at all during the intervening period of 2 years and 5 months after the first visit. The second case was a 45-year-old man who felt throbbing headache affecting the whole head immediately after diving in a swimming pool. The headache improved after about 3 hours of bed rest. One week later, an attack of similar headache occurred immediately after a dive in the swimming pool.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Adult↗
PubMed1988

[Behavior of heart rate, blood pressure, lactate, glucose, noradrenaline and adrenaline level in coronary heart disease patients in the course of light swimming stress].

In previous investigations, we have been able to demonstrate that healthy individuals and CHD patients with normal exercise capacity experience changes in cardiovascular parameters, metabolism and sympathetic activity during light swimming exercise, changes which are not observed in seated bicycle ergometry at an exercise level of less than 2 W/kg-1. We have now examined 12 post-infarction patients (54.3 +/- 6 years) with limited exercise capacity (1.2 +/- 0.3 W/kg-1), who have been participating in physical therapy for 29 months (median time) under continuous medication. The examination comprised incremental seated bicycle ergometry and, approximately 60 min later, light swimming (2 to 3 x 2 min; speed v = 0.33 +/- 0.02 m.s-1; T = 28 degrees C). The changes in heart rate, blood pressure, lactate, glucose, adrenaline and noradrenaline levels during the swimming exercise were equivalent in mean value to ergometry at the 100 W level. Three patients had to discontinue swimming before the scheduled time, due to considerable arrhythmias. Three other patients stopped swimming because of subjective overexertion. The exercise reaction was less favorable among those unaccustomed to swimming than among regular swimmers.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Validation of a developmental swimming test using Swiss Webster mice perinatally treated with methimazole.

The swimming method of Klaus and Hacker, developed for the AB/Jena and DBA2/Jena mouse strains, was evaluated for use with pre-weaned Swiss Webster (SW) mice. All SW mice completed the swimming pattern by postnatal day (PND) 16, but did not conform to all criteria depicted for each stage of the methodology. These swimming differences among strains required modification of the above method for the SW mouse. An expanded and revised swimming methodology included evaluation of limb movement and placement; body position; head position, including nostril and ear positions; and direction of movement. The revised methodology was validated on PND 4 through 20 with offspring of methimazole-treated or untreated SW dams. Methimazole, an antithyroid agent, was administered in drinking water (0.1 mg/ml; day 16 of pregnancy through day 10 postpartum). Untreated dams received tap water. Methimazole pups exhibited significant delays in swimming development on PND 9 through 16. This revised swimming methodology provides another preweaning test for the detection of behavioral teratogens for SW and probably other strains of mice.

Animals↗
PubMed1986

Visits to starts, routes, and places by rats (Rattus norvegicus) in swimming pool navigation tasks.

Rats were trained to escape to visible or to hidden platforms in a swimming pool and then given probe trials, which requires that they search for a platform that had been removed or repositioned. To solve the tasks, they simultaneously used a number of behavioral strategies including position responses, cue responses, and place responses. On the probe trials, they not only displayed behaviors that were reinforced during training, including searches in the quadrant where the platform had been located and swims across the point where the platform had been, but they also displayed novel behaviors, including swims to previously used start points on the pool wall and swims that retraced previously used routes to the platform. Rats trained on the place task (hidden platform) made more swims across the platform's previous location, whereas rats trained on the cue task (visible platform) made more returns to previously used start points. When the number of start points or number of platform locations used during training was varied, swimming patterns on the probe trials also changed. Increases in the number of start points produced more returns to start points, whereas increases in the number of platform locations produced more searches for platforms. The results reveal that rats make coextensive use of all relevant strategies to solving spatial navigation tasks. Also, their search patterns on probe trials reflect previously reinforced behaviors as well as novel unconditioned search behaviors. The implications of the results for studies of the neural basis of spatial navigation and/or animal models of human memory are discussed.

Animals↗
PubMed1983

The safety standards of domestic swimming pools 1980-1982.

The accessibility and safety standards of domestic swimming pools were studied for a sample of 1118 five-year-old children. Comparison with data collected in 1980 indicated two major trends. First, there has been an increase in the number of children in this birth cohort who had a swimming pool on their property or on a neighbouring property: in 1980 31 percent of children were living on a property with a swimming pool or had neighbours with a swimming pool; in 1982 this figure had risen to 41 percent. Coupled with this increasing number of swimming pools there was a marked decline in pool safety standards. In 1980 one in five pools lacked any safety features whereas in 1982 nearly half of the pools surveyed lacked these features. This situation of an increasing number of domestic pools associated with declining safety standards may be a factor in the increasing number of child drownings in domestic swimming pools in New Zealand. The mothers were also questioned about their attitudes to fencing legislation or by-laws requiring adequate pool fencing and gates. This showed strong support with 86 percent of mothers being in favour of such regulations and only 9 percent declaring disagreement with such a move.

Attitude↗
PubMed1983

[Are swimming and sauna hazardous in the rehabilitation of heart patients?].

The incidence of cardiac arrhythmias and ischemic episodes (I) during swimming and sauna as compared to other types of physical exercise was studied in 18 patients with coronary disease and in 18 controls without heart disease (mean age 46 and 48 years respectively). Maximum achieved heart rates during swimming and sauna were lower by at least 10% than those achieved during bicycle ergometry. Angina and/or ST segment displacement greater than or equal to 1 mm and frequent (greater than 1/min), multiform or repetitive VPB's occurred more frequently in coronary patients than in controls (I: 50 vs 11%, VPB's: 72 vs 28%, both p less than 0.005). VPB's were observed in 13/18 coronary patients, 6 of whom had these VPB's during swimming or sauna. Repetitive VPB's did not occur during swimming, but occurred during sauna in 2 coronary patients in whom they were also present during rest and walking. Ischemic episodes were noted in 9/18 coronary patients in 5 of whom they occurred during swimming. No ischemias were noted during sauna. It is concluded that swimming and sauna may safely be recommended during rehabilitation of coronary patients provided a submaximal exercise test and possibly a 24-h Holter ECG are performed on entry to exclude patients at risk.

Adult↗
PubMed1981

Behavior of heart rate and incidence of arrhythmia in swimming and diving.

Heart rate behaviour and the incidence of arrhythmia were recorded in 29 young subjects aged between 16 and 20 years using radiotelemetry equipment. The study consisted of four regimens: 100m freestyle swimming with and without an aqualung, up to 50m under water swimming without a breathing apparatus (skin diving) and 100m under water swimming with an aqualung (scuba diving). In the course of the swimming experiments the heart rate tracing exhibits three phases, namely: (a) a sharp rise in the first 10 s; (b) a reduction in the rate of increase, and (c) a constant plateau at approximately 184 bpm without an aqualung and 168 bpm with an aqualung. During apnoeic diving there is a slight increase in heart rate, followed by a rapid drop (vasovagal diver's bradycardia) and finally a plateau at approximately 55 bpm. Diver's bradycardia does not occur when the diver uses an aqualung; the heart rates then correspond to those observed during swimming (maximal rate approximately 169 bpm). Cardiac arrhythmia occurred in 18 instances (3 each during swimming with and without a breathing apparatus, 5 during diving with an aqualung and 7 during diving without an aqualung). 15 were cases of supraventricular extrasystoles, 12 occurred in the plateau phase. A man with a thorough endurance training exhibited in addition to supraventricular extrasystoles a transient bigeminy, substitutive AV systoles and an electric alternans during diving without an aqualung. He experienced no subjective feeling of impairment of performance, nor was there any objective reduction in efficiency.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1995

[Telemetry during swimming in risk evaluation of heart patients in rehabilitation].

Swimming differs from other forms of exercise due to its additional hydrostatic and thermal burden. It was investigated whether additional pathologic findings in comparison to history and standard exercise tests can be obtained by holter monitoring during swimming. Symptoms and exercise electrocardiogram were compared with the holter ECG during swimming in 125 patients divided into 3 groups with different diagnoses and severity of cardiac diseases. In a considerable percentage of patients ischemic changes and severe rhythm disturbances were found only during swimming with further diagnostic and therapeutic consequences, though patients with moderate and severe angina and with significant ischemic signs in the exercise test were excluded and mainly patients with slight or absent symptoms were evaluated predominantly. Thus, since swimming is a favorite leisure-time occupation also in patients with diseases of heart and circulation, holter monitoring during swimming is of diagnostic importance in the rehabilitation of these patients.

Adult↗