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PubMed1987

Child characteristics and the employment of mothers with young children: a longitudinal study.

The present longitudinal study investigated the relative influence of child, maternal, and demographic characteristics on the labor force participation of 93 mothers with young children in the New York Longitudinal Study. Multiple regression analyses revealed that child characteristics such as temperamental difficulty and the presence of physical problems were as potent as demographic features in predicting the mother's labor market activities throughout the child's early years. Conclusions were that multiple aspects of the context, including child characteristics, must be addressed if a more comprehensive picture of the employment patterns of mothers is to be gained.

Attitude↗
PubMed1993

Managing cultural diversity in the workplace.

Cultural diversity is a strength of the American work force. Due to the increasing cultural diversity in the workplace, organizations find it in their best interest to move beyond affirmative action to effective management to achieve higher employee retention and develops an employee cultural mix that better matches the mix of the available labor force and customer base. To manage a diverse work force, managers need to have the proper tools, training and evaluation and monitoring programs. Important initiatives to successful management of cultural diversity include eliciting support and commitment from the board of directors, the CEO and other top management; organizing subcommittees to research and monitor demographic changes to determine what the organization's goals should be and to decide what changes are to be made. Employees must be trained to be aware of prejudices and how to manage their own actions.

Administrative Personnel↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Nutrition and health--an individual responsibility.

The report of the Public Health Service Task Force on Women's Health Issues identifies five social factors which affect health and also apply to nutrition: cultural and social values, which are at the heart of issues of body size; economic status, which is associated inversely with nutrient per food dollar expenditures; labor force participation, where working mothers make less money than fathers; family, household structure, social supports, and health, where the single parent has limited resources; and interactions with a health care system that frequently identifies the woman as the victim of the problem when actually the system is the source of the problem. Fourteen of the 40 conditions described in the report mention nutrient changes or weight maintenance. Twelve other conditions have been added to the list. Four categories of women, based on their roles, are used to discuss major nutrition issues. The youth role focuses on body image and preoccupation with weight control. The childbearer role emphasizes the demand and burden of pregnancy because the outcome of pregnancy is linked with many behaviors during pregnancy. The menopausal woman role is that of the older woman and the health consequence of life-long dietary habits and the frequent "victim" position to which she is relegated when using the health care system. The gatekeeper role sends messages to the marketplace through demand and directs purchases for the home. Choosing from 13,000 items makes it possible to regularly choose foods which are inadequate in meeting daily vitamin and mineral needs and can lead to use and abuse of supplements. The final solution rests within the individual and her active involvement in seeking health care and carrying out recommendations for her nutrition and health.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1996

Intervention research in occupational safety and health: examples from construction.

Construction is one of the largest industries in the United States, with 13% of the gross national product and 5-6% of the labor force. It is also one of the most dangerous industries, accounting for 15% of occupational fatalities and 17% of all workers' compensation costs. In 1989, the Building and Construction Trades Department, AFL-CIO, completed an agreement with the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health to develop a national labor-management initiative to improve occupational safety and health throughout the construction industry. The aim was to remedy a lack of research on construction occupational safety and health. The first years were spent on surveillance to characterize construction safety and health problems, development of awareness about safety and health issues among decisionmakers in the industry, and some limited interventions. A second phase was initiated in 1994, which focuses on intervention activities. Results from this joint program include a growth in annual federal construction safety and health research expenditure from $300,000 in 1989 to $12 million in 1995, a research network that now encompasses more than 30 institutions, a national conference that established an agenda to change construction safety and health, four regional conferences to develop coalitions and implementation strategies, and the development of a feasible goal to reduce fatality and injury rates by 80%. The program may already be having an impact. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, lost-time injury rates for construction for the three most recent years of reporting declined by 20%.

Absenteeism↗
PubMed1995

Achieving and sustaining full employment.

Human rights and public health considerations provide strong support for policies that maximize employment. Ample historical and conceptual evidence supports the feasibility of full employment policies. New factors affecting the labor force, the rate of technological change, and the globalization of economic activity require appropriate policies--international as well as national--but do not invalidate the ability of modern states to apply the measures needed. Among these the most important include: (I) systematic reduction in working time with no loss of income, (2) active labor market policies, (3) use of fiscal and monetary measures to sustain the needed level of aggregate demand, (4) restoration of equal bargaining power between labor and capital, (5) social investment in neglected and outmoded infrastructure, (6) accountability of corporations for decisions to shift or reduce capital investment, (7) major reductions in military spending, to be replaced by socially needed and economically productive expenditures, (8) direct public sector job creation, (9) reform of monetary policy to restore emphasis on minimizing unemployment and promoting full employment. None are without precedent in modern economies. The obstacles are ideological and political. To overcome them will require intellectual clarity and effective advocacy.

Economic Competition↗
PubMed2005

Educational and labor wastage of doctors in Mexico: towards the construction of a common methodology.

BACKGROUND: This paper addresses the problem of wastage of the qualified labor force, which takes place both during the education process and when trained personnel try to find jobs in the local market. METHODS: Secondary sources were used, mainly the Statistical yearbooks of the National Association of Universities and Higher Education Institutions (ANUIES in Spanish). Also, the 2000 Population Census was used to estimate the different sources of labor market wastage. The formulas were modified to estimate educational and labor wastage rates. RESULTS: Out of every 1000 students who started a medical training in 1996, over 20% were not able to finish the training by 2000. Furthermore, out of every 1000 graduates, 31% were not able to find a remunerated position in the labor market that would enable them to put into practice the abilities and capacities obtained at school. Important differences can be observed between generalists and specialists, as well as between men and women. In the case of specialists and men, lower wastage rates can be observed as compared to the wastage rates of generalists and women. A large percentage of women dedicate themselves exclusively to household duties, which in labor terms represents a wastage of their capacity to participate in the production of formal health services. CONCLUSION: Women are becoming a majority in most medical schools, yet their participation in the labor market does not reflect the same trend. Among men, policies should be formulated to incorporate doctors in the specific health field for which they were trained. Regarding women, specific policies should target those who are dedicated full-time to household activities in order to create the possibility of having them occupy a remunerated job if they are willing to do so. Reducing wastage at both the educational and labor levels should improve the capacity of social investment, thereby increasing the capacity of the health system as a whole to provide services, particularly to those populations who are most in need.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1975

Women in health care.

The occupational, class, and sex structure of the United States Health Labor Force is similar to the competitive sector of the economy (i.e., it is predominantly female, poorly paid and poorly unionized). Upper-middle-class men compose the great majority of medical professionals, whereas lower-middle and working-class women form the greatest proportion of all middle-level, clerical and service workers. This division of labor is due to the role of women both in the family and as a reserve of labor for the economy. There is a virtual absence of the majority of producers--lower-middle-class and working-class women-- in the decision-making bodies of the health institutions. The political strategy for change is to introduce institutional democracy in the health sector, with control on the institutions by those who work in them--and those who are served by them.

Discrimination, Psychological↗
PubMed1993

Women's employment and the Social Security system.

The rapid rise in women's labor-force participation and the great increase in diversity of family and household structures raise serious questions about the equity and adequacy of a Social Security system developed primarily to meet the needs of traditional families with male wage earners and female homemakers. This article examines the changes in women's roles in the home and in the labor market, then goes on to consider possible reforms in the Social Security system that might help it to better meet the requirements of this profoundly altered society.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Estimating the global burden of low back pain attributable to combined occupational exposures.

BACKGROUND: There is little information about the global burden of non-traumatic low back pain (LBP) attributable to the effects of physical and psychosocial occupational stressors. METHODS: Based on a review of the epidemiological evidence, occupation-specific relative risks were used to compute attributable proportions by age, gender, and geographical sub-region for the economically active population aged 15 and older. The reference group was professional/administrative workers; other risk categories were Low, clerical and sales; Moderate, operators (production workers) and service; and High, farmers. RESULTS: Worldwide, 37% of LBP was attributed to occupation, with twofold variation across regions. The attributable proportion was higher for men than women, because of higher participation in the labor force and in occupations with heavy lifting or whole-body vibration. Work-related LBP was estimated to cause 818,000 disability-adjusted life years lost annually. CONCLUSIONS: Occupational exposures to ergonomic stressors represent a substantial source of preventable back pain. Specific research on children is needed to quantify the global burden of disease due to child labor.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

[Workload and health of older employees in service occupations].

Presented are the results of a representative survey of the German work force (N = 34,343) regarding work load and work-related diseases. The study comprises females and males aged 45 years and older, who are occupied in the service sector (N = 8310). The findings show that older workers in this economic sector have to bear considerable physical and mental work loads that are often higher than those for the total labor force. The results presented point to the need to encourage and practice a more comprehensive health promotion for older workers in the service sector.

Aged↗
PubMed1985

A recursive model of economic well-being in retirement.

Although investigators have identified some of the social and economic forces that influence levels of economic resources among elderly adults, little has been done to organize these factors into predictive lifespan models of economic well-being. Applying path analysis to data on retiring workers from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, the present research offers a beginning recursive model. It traces the influences of demographic/family background, human capital, and work-related characteristics on economic position in retirement. Controlling for differences in labor force participation and other human capital measures, race and family background lose their direct significance, whereas sex remains directly significant in predicting economic resource levels for recently retired workers. In addition, the model estimates the direct and indirect effects played by industrial sector location and social class position. In total the structurally based capital attainment model explains 65% of the variance in a measure of economic well-being that includes retirement income and wealth.

Aged↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Recruitment and retention topics for a changing environment in medical imaging.

Imaging directors are fighting just to keep the vacuum of a four percent unemployment market and a hungry computer industry from rapidly depleting their technical staff. Many factors have contributed to the current nationwide shortage of radiologic technologists. One is the closure of many hospital and community college-based programs of radiologic technology in the late 1980s and 1990s. The closures were a direct result of problems encountered by new technologists coming into a saturated workforce in the mid 1980s and early 1990s. The exodus of so many potential workers from the profession coincided with the changing perception students had of health careers versus computer technology and other careers. At the same time, the increasing importance of preventive care and diagnostic procedures almost tripled exam volumes. To cope with the increased demand for imaging services, outpatient diagnostic centers popped up. Increased numbers of exams and facilities meant an increased demand for qualified technologists, especially multicompetent technologists. Managed care and capitation demanded that we keep costs down as much as possible. Full-time employees were laid off and found good work at good pay and extraordinary benefits in other industries. New modalities have stretched a thinning labor force even tighter. MRI, PET and others continue to increase the demand for highly trained technologists. Levels of stress at work continue to rise, adding to the exodus of technologists to other careers. In this environment, staffing needs assessment is crucial. Some of the scheduling strategies you can use are: creative use of staff and referring physician preferences, flexible staffing tools and understanding the effect of the capacity of your imaging systems. The tight labor market affects all levels of hiring. But, as urgent as the need to fill openings is, don't make a quick decision to hire. You will live with the consequences. There is no stronger disincentive to your good employees than having to work with "problem children" or failing to discipline those who are not producing. Image and perceptions can have a significant effect on recruiting. How does the public perceive your organization? How does the technical community perceive your department? The current shortage of radiologic technologists and tight labor market require administrators to use all avenues toward improving their departments, retaining valuable employees and offering the most attractive salary and benefit packages to qualified applicants.

Health Services Needs and Demand↗
PubMed1999

Combining quantitative and qualitative approaches in occupational health for a better understanding of the impact of work-related disorders.

Over the past years, the work situation has experienced important transformations, notably, the technological revolution and globalization, the influx of women into the labor market, an increased dependence on chemical substances, and a transfer of production and many hazardous procedures from North to South. These changes have important repercussions on the nature and type of occupational exposures, as well as on the labor force, affecting the relation between work and health. While quantitative studies have dominated occupational health research over the past half century, qualitative methods can serve to ground quantitative data with regard to defining the research questions, providing further information on the impact of work conditions on health and well-being, and reducing errors in exposure and health outcomes. Combining qualitative and quantitative methods in a complementary fashion can lead to a better understanding of the rapidly changing work environment and labor situation and a means for developing appropriate strategies for preventive intervention.

Attitude to Health↗
PubMed1996

Occupation and suicide among males in the US Armed Forces.

During the period 1980 to 1992, 95% of the 3178 military suicide victims were men and 92% enlisted; of the men, 71% were aged 20 to 34, 82% were white, and 61% used a firearm. Information extracted from the Report of Casualty of the Worldwide Casualty System maintained by the Department of Defense was used to describe the occupational risk among military men. Occupations related to the use of or access to firearms were associated with a significant risk of suicide when compared to other military occupations. Collectively, military security and law enforcement specialists had a significant occupational rate ratio (1.25; 95% confidence interval: 1.02, 1.53; P < 0.05). This corresponds to findings from national civilian labor force fatality data where police and detectives are also at an elevated risk of suicide. Because the scope and work of these military high-risk groups may differ from service to service, additional occupational information should be examined to facilitate a better understanding of the complex etiology of suicide and to develop appropriate prevention strategies.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1984

Nestle and breast vs. bottle feeding: mainstream and Marxist perspectives.

The breast vs. bottle feeding issue has sparked a controversial debate. Mainstream analysis of the problem shows that arguments made by the business community, as represented by the Nestle Corporation, do not withstand examination of the evidence. For example, it cannot be substantiated that women begin formula feeding because they have entered the labor force. Mainstream studies of cost effectiveness further indicate that bottle feeding is a drain on the incomes of impoverished Third World families and nations. Marxist analysis gives a very different perspective. Nestle represents 19th century capitalist development and the Industrial Revolution, and 20th century imperialism, neocolonialism and monopoly capitalism. Its motive has been capital accumulation and expansion. To increase surplus value appropriation, capitalism must devalue the household (subsistence) economy in which women enjoyed considerable status. Women also produce the most fundamental commodity for capitalism-laborers; therefore, the biological connection must be masked and controlled for the benefit of capital. Thus, as the capitalist mode of production has developed, women have been removed from important roles in production and reproduction. Coupled with the ascendancy of science, expertism and public health imperialism, breast feeding in any market economy becomes nearly impossible. As women internalize the values of capitalist ideology, they elevate "man-made" marketed commodities over subsistence goods such as breast milk.

Bottle Feeding↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Female migration to Taipei: process and adaptation.

Women form an increasing proportion of migrants and of the non-agricultural labor force in Taiwan. However, many questions regarding female migration in Taiwan have remained unanswered since the focus of the migration literature in the past has been on male migration. This paper examines the decision process of rural-urban migration and adaptation of rural female migrants to the Taipei metropolis. The analysis is based on interviews of 96 female migrants who have moved to Taipei from villages. The reasons for migration are severalfold. With rapid expansion of employment in the manufacturing and urban service sectors, women are attracted to urban occupations, most of which require unskilled labor. Migrants are also motivated by psycho-social reasons. The "glamour" and "convenience" of city and greater chances for further education through work-study programs are all perceived by migrants to provide alternatives to hard and unrewarding farm lives. Though the initiative and final decision to move come from the migrants themselves, most only do so, however, with the consent and advice of their parents. The choice of moving to Taipei, rather than some other city, is mainly influenced by friends or relatives who are alrady there. Their initial jobs and accommodations are arranged by friends and relatives. The majority of women are employed in unskilled or semi-skilled occupations. Even though they change jobs frequently in order to find better employment terms and pay, they experience limited upward mobility. Homesickness, unfamiliarity with the city environment, limited resoureces, and social lives are major problems for the rural female. Freequent home vistits are made in between jobs to relieve themselves of homesickness and the pressures of city life. Once settled, they do not segreate themselves by village origin in their occupation or palces of residence in the city, but they have a tendency to interact socially with other migrants of rural origin rather than city people.

Asia↗
PubMed1994

Migration from India to Australia.

"The article examines the contemporary trends and future prospects of migration from India to Australia. The focus is on Indian Settlers and Temporary Entrants admitted to Australia for employment and Indian students admitted to Australia for higher studies. The volume of emigration for permanent residence during the early 1990s has made India one of the leading source countries of migration to Australia. A majority of Indians admitted as Settlers every year join the labor force. Recent data indicate that, among Indian Settlers, there is a preponderance of unsponsored Independent Skilled Migrants. Given the anticipated growth in the number of Indian students, the coming years are likely to witness a spurt in Skilled Temporary Workers from India."

Asia↗
PubMed1993

Social Security and older workers.

Many observers have noted that the long-term decline in labor-force participation by older Americans may reflect the evolution of social institutions that effectively discourage work. Often cited factors include employer discrimination against older workers, private pension plans that penalize continued employment, and the Social Security system. Various policies, such as eliminating Social Security's retirement test, have been proposed with a view to eliminating or lessening employment barriers. This article summarizes the economic evidence that addresses the role played by the Old-Age and Survivors Insurance (OASI) programs in retirement decisions. OASI is shown to have statistically significant effects on both the timing of retirement and the amount of postretirement work; however, the influence is not large relative to the many other factors that determine the labor-supply decisions of older workers. Consequently, changes in Social Security policy of the type and magnitude that are politically feasible are unlikely to result in large changes in retirement behavior.

Age Distribution↗