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At least 613 records · Page 34Linked to original sources
PubMed2000

Neuronal expression of Fos protein in the hypothalamus of rats with heart failure.

We sought to identify the areas that have altered neuronal activity within the hypothalamus of rats with heart failure (HF) by mapping neuronal staining of c-Fos protein (Fos) 6-8 weeks following coronary artery ligation (HF group; n=17) or sham surgery (sham-operated control group, n=15). Fos-like immunoreactivity was observed in the paraventricular nucleus (PVN), supraoptic nucleus (SON), median preoptic nucleus (MnPO), anterior hypothalamus (AH) and posterior hypothalamus (PH) using a standard ABC immunocytochemical protocol. The rats in the HF group displayed infarcts averaging 34+/-2% of the outer circumference and 41+/-1% of the inner circumference of the left ventricular wall. Sham-operated control rats had no observable damage to the myocardium. Rats with chronic heart failure (n=5) but no manipulation (no surgery) had a similar number of Fos-staining cells in PVN SON, MnPO, AH and PH compared to sham-operated rats. Acute surgery for isolation of vagus nerves and anesthesia for 90 min increased the number of Fos positive cells in PVN, SON and MnPO of both sham-operated rats and rats with HF. Furthermore, rats with heart failure (n=5) had significantly higher number of Fos-staining cells in PVN (four times), SON (4.5 times) and MnPO (1.5 times) compared to sham-operated rats after acute surgery for isolation of the vagus. The number of Fos-staining cells remained unaltered in AH and PH in both groups of rats. However, in a third series of experiments vagotomy reduced the number of Fos-staining cells in the PVN, SON or MnPO of rats with HF (n=5) to those observed in sham-operated vagotomized rats. This study shows that: (1) there is augmented neuronal activity as indicated by increased number of Fos staining neurons in the PVN, SON and MnPO due to acute surgical stress in rats with HF, and (2) vagal afferents are responsible for the increased neuronal activity in PVN, SON and MnPO of rats with HF during acute surgical stress. These data support the conclusion that vasopressin producing neurons and autonomic areas within the hypothalamus influenced by vagal afferents are activated during HF and are sensitive to 'acute surgical stress' and may contribute to the elevated levels of vasopressin and sympatho-excitation commonly observed in heart failure.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Immunohistochemical characterization of localization of long-form leptin receptor (OB-Rb) in neurochemically defined cells in the ovine hypothalamus.

Leptin, a hormone secreted from the adipose tissue, is involved in the regulation of food intake and neuroendocrine function, by modulation of the expression and/or function of various neuropeptides in the hypothalamus. The long isoform (OB-Rb) is the major signaling form of the leptin receptor in the hypothalamus. We have used double-labeling immunohistochemistry to examine the extent of OB-Rb expression in neurochemically defined cell types in the ovine hypothalamus. OB-Rb-like immunoreactivity was widespread within cells localized to the periventricular, paraventricular, supraoptic, dorsomedial hypothalamic, ventromedial hypothalamic and arcuate nuclei, as well as the median eminence, perifornical, anterior hypothalamic and lateral hypothalamic areas and the zona incerta. Double-labeling showed expression of OB-Rb in 59.6+/-6.0% neuropeptide Y-containing cells, 60.8+/-4.7% galanin-containing cells, 89.8+/-2.65% pro-opiomelanocortin-containing cells, 73.4+/-3.5% tyrosine hydroxylase-containing cells and 31.8+/-2.8% corticotropin-releasing factor-containing cells. Interestingly 100% of melanin-concentrating hormone and orexin positive cells were also OB-Rb immunoreactive. These data provide semi-quantitative information on the extent to which various cell types express OB-Rb in the hypothalamus. Expression of OB-Rb within specific neuropeptidergic neurons provides evidence for the direct action of leptin upon the various neurochemical systems that regulate food intake, neuroendocrine and autonomic function in the brain.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Effects of restraint stress on alpha(1) adrenoceptor mRNA expression in the hypothalamus and midbrain of the rat.

We examined the effects of restraint stress on alpha(1) adrenoceptor mRNA expression in the rat brain using reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). After rats had been restrained for 10, 30, 60, 120 or 240 min, the hypothalamus and midbrain were removed immediately and alpha(1) adrenoceptor mRNA levels in these regions were determined by RT-PCR. Blood samples were also collected for simultaneous measurement of serum adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and corticosterone. Restraint stress resulted in a variety of changes in the hypothalamus and midbrain. In the hypothalamus, 30 and 60 min of stress resulted in a significant fall in the level of alpha(1) adrenoceptor mRNA relative to the control. This was associated with a rise in serum ACTH and corticosterone. In the midbrain, significant elevation of alpha(1) adrenoceptor mRNA was noted after 60, 120 and 240 min of restraint stress. Our findings indicated that the influence of restraint stress on alpha(1) adrenoceptor mRNA level in the hypothalamus is different to that of the midbrain region in rats.

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone↗
PubMed2000

Effects of repeated stress on expression of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and IL-6 receptor mRNAs in rat hypothalamus and midbrain.

We examined the effects of single and repeated stress on the expression of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and IL-6 receptor (IL-6R) mRNAs in the rat midbrain and hypothalamus using reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Following a single episode of restraint stress for 4 hours (1R) or 4 hours per day on two (2R) or three (3R) consecutive days, the hypothalamus and midbrain were removed immediately and the levels of IL-6 and IL-6R mRNAs in both regions were determined. Regional differences in stress-related changes in mRNA levels were noted. The expression of IL-6 mRNA in the hypothalamus did not change in 1R group but decreased in 2R and 3R groups. The expression of IL-6R mRNA in the same region significantly diminished in all groups. In the midbrain, the expression of IL-6 mRNA increased in 1R group and decreased in 2R and 3R, while the expression of IL-6R mRNA significantly diminished in 1R and 3R groups but was not different from control in 2R group. Our findings indicate that repeated stress in rats produce changes in IL-6 and IL-6R mRNAs in the midbrain and hypothalamus that are different than those of a single stress episode.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Chronic clomipramine alters presynaptic 5-HT(1B) and postsynaptic 5-HT(1A) receptor sensitivity in rat hypothalamus and hippocampus, respectively.

Clomipramine is a tricyclic antidepressant drug with a high affinity for the serotonin (5-HT) uptake site or transporter. Electrophysiological experiments have provided evidence that repeated administration of clomipramine induces an increase in the sensitivity of postsynaptic 5-HT(1A) receptors in the hippocampus. We have studied the effects of clomipramine, administered to rats at a dose of 10mg/kg/day for 28 days by osmotic minipumps, on presynaptic 5-HT(1A) and 5-HT(1B) autoreceptors in the hypothalamus, and on postsynaptic 5-HT(1A) receptors in the hippocampus, by using in vivo microdialysis to measure 5-HT and cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) levels. Postsynaptic 5-HT(1A) receptor sensitivity in the hypothalamus was determined by means of a neuroendocrine challenge procedure. Although the sensitivity of presynaptic 5-HT(1A) autoreceptors, as measured by the effect of a subcutaneous (s.c.) injection of 8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino)tetralin (8-OH-DPAT, 0.2mg/kg or 50 microg/kg) to reduce 5-HT levels, did not change, there was a reduction in sensitivity of presynaptic 5-HT(1B) receptors, as measured by the effect of an injection of the 5-HT(1B/1D) antagonist GR 127935 (5mg/kg, s.c.) to increase 5-HT levels. This effect probably accounted for the increase in basal 5-HT levels observed in the hypothalamus after chronic clomipramine administration. Postsynaptic 5-HT(1A) receptor sensitivity in the hippocampus, measured by the effect of 8-OH-DPAT to increase cAMP levels in the dialysate, was increased after chronic clomipramine. Animals that had received daily intraperitoneal injections of 10mg/kg clomipramine for 28 days did not show a change in postsynaptic 5-HT(1A) receptor sensitivity in the hypothalamus as measured by the ability of 8-OH-DPAT (50 microg/kg, s.c.) to stimulate secretion of corticosterone. Taken together with the results of previous experiments involving the cerebral cortex, these in vivo results show that chronic clomipramine exerts effects on both pre- and postsynaptic serotonin receptors, but that these effects are highly region-specific.

8-Hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino)tetralin↗
PubMed1999

Repeated administration of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol produces a differential time related responsiveness on proenkephalin, proopiomelanocortin and corticotropin releasing factor gene expression in the hypothalamus and pituitary gland of the rat.

The purpose of the present study was to explore the time related effects of repeated administration of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol on opioid and corticotropin releasing factor gene expression in the hypothalamus and pituitary gland of the rat. By using in situ hybridization histochemistry, the effects of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC, 5 mg/kg per day; i.p.) were examined after 1, 3, 7 and 14 days of repeated administration on; (1) proenkephalin gene expression in the paraventricular (PVN) and ventromedial nuclei (VMN) of the hypothalamus, (2) proopiomelanocortin gene expression in the arcuate nucleus (ARC) of the hypothalamus and anterior (AL) and intermediate lobe (IL) of the pituitary gland, and (3) corticotropin releasing factor gene expression in the PVN. The results revealed that, in most of the hypothalamic and pituitary regions examined, repeated cannabinoid administration upregulates opioid and corticotropin releasing factor gene expression. However, the onset, the degree of magnitude of gene expression reached and the time related effects produced by repeated administration with delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol are dependent upon the brain and pituitary regions examined. Taken together, the results of the present study suggest that cannabinoids produce a time related differential responsiveness in opioid and corticotropin releasing factor gene expression, in areas of the hypothalamus and pituitary that may be related, at least in part, to a molecular integrative response to behavioral, endocrine and neurochemical alterations that occur in cannabinoid drug abuse.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Effects of intrauterine position on the metabolic capacity of the hypothalamus of female gerbils.

The intrauterine position that a rodent fetus occupies relative to members of the same or opposite gender affects both its reproductive physiology and behavior when adult. Cytochrome oxidase histochemistry was used to assess regional differences in the oxidative metabolic capacity of the hypothalamus of female Mongolian gerbils that developed in utero between 2 female fetuses (n = 15) or between 2 male fetuses (n = 14). Cytochrome oxidase reactivity was measured densitometrically by experimenters unaware of subject intrauterine position. Gray-to-white matter ratios of optical density in 11 brain regions were used as a normalized index of metabolic capacity. Significant group differences in the metabolic capacity of the medial and the posterior parts of the anterior hypothalamus were revealed. Females that developed in utero between 2 male fetuses showed significant increases (19-22%) in cytochrome oxidase reactivity in these brain regions compared to that in females that developed between 2 female fetuses. The medial part of the anterior hypothalamus contributes to copulatory behavior, whereas the posterior part of the anterior hypothalamus may be involved in the control of pituitary gonadotropin secretion. Both these functions are influenced by intrauterine position during fetal life. To our knowledge, this is the first demonstration of metabolic changes in hypothalamic areas of the adult related to the differences in intrauterine position.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Oxygen-sensing neurons in the caudal hypothalamus and their role in cardiorespiratory control.

Work from this laboratory has shown that the caudal hypothalamus modulates the cardiorespiratory responses to hypoxia. The purpose of this review is to describe the modulation of respiratory output by the caudal hypothalamus during hypoxia and how neurons in this area respond to hypoxia. The diaphragmatic activity response to hypoxia was significantly attenuated following microinjection of either cobalt chloride or kynurenic acid into the caudal hypothalamus of rats. In addition, caudal hypothalamic neurons in anesthetized rats and cats responded to hypoxia with an increased firing frequency. This response was maintained in the absence of input from the vagus and carotid sinus nerves in the cat. When recorded extracellularly or by whole-cell patch clamp in vitro, these neurons responded to hypoxia with an increase in firing frequency, membrane potential and inward current. These results suggest that the caudal hypothalamus exerts excitatory influence on respiration during hypoxia, that may originate from the ability of these neurons to sense changes in oxygen levels.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Immunoreactive thromboxane synthase is measurable in ovine fetal hypothalamus as early as 86 days' gestation.

Thromboxane A2 (TxA2) augments hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis activity in both fetal and adult animals. We have proposed that TxA2 acts as a neuromodulator within the brain to stimulate the release of corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) or arginine vasopressin (AVP) into the hypophyseal-portal blood. We performed the present experiments to identify immunoreactive thromboxane synthase (TxS) within fetal brain regions and to quantify developmental changes in the TxS immunoreactivity measurable within those regions. We found that immunoreactive TxS was present in fetal hypothalamus, pituitary, brainstem, and lung. In fetal hypothalamus, we found immunoreactive TxS in three identifiable molecular weights, approximately 65, 42, and 35 kD. In fetal pituitary and lung, we found the 65 and 35 kD forms, and in the brainstem we found only the 35 kD form. In fetal pituitary, there was a clear ontogenetic change in TxS immunoreactivity. The 42 kD TxS immunoreactivity was not present in the youngest fetal sheep studied (86-90 days' gestation), but was expressed in the other age groups (125-128, 135-139, 141-term, and postnatal ages). The other molecular weight forms appeared to increase in the older fetuses, but the changes were not significant. In the hypothalamus, all three forms of TxS were measurable at all ages, and there was no significant change in relative abundance. We conclude that immunoreactive TxS is present in the fetal brain throughout the last half of fetal gestation, but that the significance of multiple molecular weight forms is not clear.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Asymmetric calmodulin distribution in the hypothalamus: role of sexual differentiation in the rat.

The Ca2+/calmodulin (CaM) system plays important roles both in hypothalamic sexual differentiation and in the progesterone-induced facilitation of lordosis behavior in the adult rat. We recently showed sex-dependent differences in rat hypothalamic CaM levels, both in newborn and in adult animals. Here, we evaluated the presence of left-right hypothalamic asymmetries in CaM concentration in male and female rats, as well as the changes induced on these parameters by neonatal (1 h after birth) subcutaneous administration of tamoxifen (200 microg/rat) or testosterone (30 microg/rat). CaM was measured by RIA in each half of the hypothalamus (at 2, 6, 12, and 24 h and at 90 days after birth) in both control and treated animals. In untreated young rats (2-24 h after birth), CaM concentration was significantly higher in the right half of the hypothalamus of males, whereas in females, it was higher in the hypothalamic left half. Treatment of females with testosterone or tamoxifen to males, consistently reversed these results. In the hypothalamus of treated animals, we found higher CaM levels in the left half of males, as well as in the right half of females. In control adult females, CaM concentration was also higher in the left half of the hypothalamus, as it was in the right half of adult males. However, this asymmetry was lost after neonatal hormone manipulation. These results reinforce the role of CaM in the development of sex-related hypothalamic functions.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Ontogeny of the GNRH-, glutaminase- and glutamate decarboxylase-gene expression in the hypothalamus of female rats.

Amino acid neurotransmitters like gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glutamate (GLU) are involved in the regulation of hypothalamic gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) release. We investigated, whether there are changes of gene expression in the rat hypothalamus for GnRH, GnRH receptor, as well as glutaminase and glutamate decarboxylase, two enzymes regulating neurotransmitter concentrations of GLU and GABA in the brain during the ontogeny. After reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) we used an ELISA method to quantify PCR products. In 15-day old animals high plasma luteinizing hormone (LH) levels with pronounced variations were found. In 25-day old animals LH values were low, whereas in 35-day old rats LH levels increased significantly indicating the reactivation of the GnRH-pulse generator at the beginning of puberty. In parallel to these changes, the mRNA levels of the GnRH receptor in the mediobasal hypothalamus were high at day 15, significantly lower at day 25 and again high at day 35 after birth (ELISA O.D. GnRH-R day 15: 0.46+/-0.07, day 25: 0.16+/-0.04, day 35: 0.36+/-0.04; p<0.01), but no changes of GnRH receptor gene expression were found in the preoptic area. The mRNA of GnRH in the preoptic area as well as mRNA levels of glutaminase and glutamate decarboxylase in the mediobasal hypothalamus and the preoptic area did not change during ontogeny. We conclude that hypothalamic GnRH receptors are involved in the characteristic changes of LH secretion patterns during sexual maturation. Major changes of GnRH receptor gene expression occurred in the mediobasal hypothalamus and correlated well with plasma LH levels, whereas hypothalamic mRNA levels of GnRH, glutaminase and glutamate decarboxylase did not change within the different age groups. Thus the activity of the GABA- and glutamatergic system during ontogeny may be regulated at the receptor or postreceptor level.

Aging↗
PubMed2000

Pivagabine-induced increases in the abundance of CRF mRNA in the cerebral cortex and hypothalamus of rats.

The effect of treatment of rats with pivagabine (4-[(2,2-dimethyl-1-oxopropyl) amino] butanoic acid) for 4 days on the abundance of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) mRNA in the brain was investigated. Such treatment resulted in dose-dependent (100-300 mg/kg, i.p.) increases in the amount of CRF mRNA in both the hypothalamus and cerebral cortex. The maximal increases were thus apparent with the dose of 300 mg/kg in the hypothalamus (+108%) and cerebral cortex (+49%) 30 or 60 min, respectively, after the last drug injection. Foot-shock stress administered 30 min after the final drug injection had no effect on the pivagabine-induced increases in the abundance of CRF mRNA in the hypothalamus or cerebral cortex. Such stress also had no effect on the amounts of CRF mRNA in these brain regions of vehicle-treated rats. These results demonstrate that pivagabine increases the amount of CRF mRNA in both the hypothalamus and cerebral cortex of rats, effects that might be relevant to the action of this drug in preventing the stress-induced changes in CRF hypothalamic concentration.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Monoamines in the dorsomedial hypothalamus of rats following exposure to different tests of "anxiety".

1. Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were subjected to the fear-potentiated startle, elevated plus-maze and social interaction tests and the levels of norepinephrine, dopamine and serotonin in the dorsomedial hypothalamus were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography. 2. Only rats subjected to the full fear potentiated startle test and not the other tests of anxiety or components (foot shocks or acoustic startle) of fear-potentiated startle showed significant increases in norepinephrine and dopamine levels after 24 hours. 3. A time course experiment specific for the norepinephrine changes in the dorsomedial hypothalamus of fear-potentiated startle rats revealed a significant increase in tissue content as compared to controls at both the 12 and 24 hour post-test time points. 4. Tyrosine hydroxylase activity in the dorsomedial hypothalamus of the fear-potentiated startle rats did not show a significant change from controls. 5. An in vitro release study found a significant decrease in potassium-stimulated release of norepinephrine in the dorsomedial hypothalamus as compared to controls at 24 hours post-test. 6. These results suggest that animals exposed to fear-potentiated startle and not other tests of "anxiety" have a change in tissue catecholamine levels and that the norepinephrine change may be the result of a decrease in release and not an increase in synthesis.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Induction of granulin precursor gene expression by estrogen treatment in neonatal rat hypothalamus.

Our previous research has demonstrated that androgen treatment during the perinatal period increases granulin (grn) precursor mRNA levels in the neonatal rat hypothalamus. To elucidate whether exogenous estrogen increases grn mRNA in the neonatal hypothalami, expression of grn gene in the neonatal hypothalamus was studied by the competitive reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction method. At 6 and 10 days of age, grn gene expression was significantly increased in the hypothalamus of pups whose dam has been dietarily administrated ethinyl estradiol from day 15 of gestation to the day of sampling. The subcutaneous injection of estradiol benzoate to neonatal rats at 2 days of age significantly increased grn gene expression on day 10. It was shown that estrogen, as well as androgen, was able to induce grn gene expression in the neonatal hypothalamus.

Administration, Oral↗
PubMed2002

Stimulatory effects of pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide on inositol phosphates accumulation in avian cerebral cortex and hypothalamus.

This study has demonstrated that the short and long form of the pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP), i.e. PACAP(27) and PACAP(38), moderately but significantly, and in a concentration (0.5-5 microM)-dependent manner, stimulated inositol phosphates (IPs) accumulation in myo-[(3)H]inositol-prelabeled cerebral cortical and hypothalamal slices of chick and duck, and in slices of rat cerebral cortex; both peptides had no effect on IPs formation in rat hypothalamus. Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP; 0.5-5 microM) weakly enhanced IPs accumulation in chick hypothalamus, had no significant action in chick cerebral cortex (in fact there was a tendency to attenuate the IPs response in this tissue), and slightly, but significantly, inhibited the IPs accumulation in rat cerebral cortex. VIP showed no activity in rat hypothalamus. It is concluded that the stimulatory action of PACAP on phosphoinositide metabolism in avian cerebral cortex, similar to rat cerebral cortex, is mediated via phospholipase C-linked PAC(1) type receptors. In chick hypothalamus, however, there may be a component of VPAC type receptors stimulating IPs formation.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Prostaglandin E2 injected into the posterior hypothalamus has no effect on trigeminal nociception in the rat.

Craniovascular prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) release is elevated in the headache phase of migraine and in experimental models of headache. PGE2 synthesised in the brain may be involved in modulating trigeminal nociception. We examined whether PGE2 injected into the posterior hypothalamus could modulate trigeminovascular nociception. In seven rats, electrophysiological recordings were made from trigeminal nucleus caudalis neurons responsive to noxious middle meningeal artery stimulation and inhibited by bicuculline activation of the posterior hypothalamus. Microinjection into the posterior hypothalamus of a non-pyrogenic dose of PGE2 (2.5 microg/ml) produced no effect on nociceptive trigeminal nucleus caudalis neurons compared with saline injection (P=0.29). The mean response to PGE2 injection was 97% of baseline. We conclude that PGE2 in the posterior hypothalamus is unlikely to play a significant role in modulating trigeminal nociception.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Ontogeny of neurotrophin receptor trkC expression in the rat forebrain and anterior hypothalamus with emphasis on the suprachiasmatic nucleus.

There is little information about neurotrophic regulation in the developing rat hypothalamus. In the present study, we therefore examined the expression of neurotrophin receptor TrkC in the developing forebrain and hypothalamus. In situ hybridization of coronal sections revealed that on the 15th day of gestation, trkC messenger RNA expression is homogeneously distributed over the neocortex, septum, thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, rhinencephalon and the amygdala. Exceptions were the anteroventral nucleus of the hypothalamus and the striatum, which showed higher levels of trkC messenger RNA expression, and the germinal zones which were devoid of trkC messenger RNA. After birth, the homogeneous staining pattern changes into a heterogeneous staining pattern like that found in adulthood. TrkC expression is observed in the area of the suprachiasmatic nucleus as early as E17 and continues until adulthood. The presence of the TrkC receptor in the E17 suprachiasmatic nucleus suggests that neurotrophin-3 plays a role in development of this structure and that application of neurotrophin-3 could stimulate neuronal survival and neuritic outgrowth in a suprachiasmatic nucleus transplantation model.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Hypothalamus, hypertension, and exercise.

The hypothalamus is a well-known autonomic regulatory region of the brain involved in integrating several behaviors as well as cardiorespiratory activity. Our laboratory has shown that the caudal hypothalamus modulates the cardiorespiratory responses associated with exercise. In addition, other findings from this laboratory and others have implicated alterations in this same brain region in spontaneously hypertensive rats as contributing factors of the elevated levels of arterial pressure in hypertension. Several studies have revealed a gamma-amino-butyric acid (GABAergic) deficiency in the caudal hypothalamus of spontaneously hypertensive rats that contributes to the tonic disinhibition and overactivity of this pressor region. Because chronic exercise is able to increase cardiovascular health in the hypertensive rat, we hypothesized that exercise-induced caudal hypothalamic plasticity partially underlies the beneficial effects of physical activity. In this review we discuss initial findings from this lab that support this hypothesis. Our experiments demonstrate that chronic exercise alters gene expression and neuronal activity in the caudal hypothalamus of the spontaneously hypertensive rat. These findings describe a potential mechanism by which chronic exercise lowers blood pressure in the hypertensive individual.

Animals↗