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PubMed2004

Material appropriate processing and elaboration: The impact of balanced and complementary types of processing on learning concepts from text.

BACKGROUND: The Material Appropriate Processing (MAP) framework suggests that the influence of a text adjunct on the learning and transfer of textual information will be moderated by the overlap between type of processing induced by the adjunct and by the organisation of the text. The two types of processing are item specific processing and relational processing. Although complementary types of processing have been found to produce superior concept learning effects in previous research, there is some question as to the effects of complementary but unbalanced processing. AIMS: This study examined the effects of different combinations of two types of text adjuncts (i.e., elaborative activities) and two types of text on learning concepts from text. The four combined treatments differed as to the degree to which they were balanced and/or complementary. SAMPLE: Participants were 80 undergraduate students who were enrolled in a Year 3 education paper. METHODS: Students studied a passage that included adjuncts which asked them to either: (a) create personal examples of target concepts, or (b) contrast the target concepts. In addition, two versions of text were paired with these adjuncts: specific-only text and specific/relational text. Subjects took a criterion test that consisted of cued recall of definitions, free recall of text, classification of novel examples, and problem solving. RESULTS: Best performance occurred within the condition that included balanced and complementary processing of text/adjunct information, and worst performance occurred in the condition that included non-complementary processing. CONCLUSION: Although these results are consistent with a MAP perspective, the results are equivocal about the potential interfering effects of complementary and unbalanced processing on learning of concepts from text.

Adult↗
PubMed1994

Perceptual retraining for adults with diffuse brain injury.

Occupational therapy for adults with perceptual dysfunction secondary to diffuse acquired brain injury from trauma or anoxia often includes remedial retraining with treatment tasks, like construction of puzzles, to provide clients with practice in deficit perceptual skills. Therapists using this approach assume that adults with brain injury learn specific perceptual skills from retraining exercises and can transfer those skills across all activities (including self-care and community living activities) that require those skills. This review of outcome studies about remedial perceptual retraining for adults with diffuse acquired brain injury suggests that those learning assumptions hold true only for clients with localized lesions and preserved abstract reasoning who have been explicitly taught to transfer learning across a variety of treatment activities. Recommendations about ways to assess clients' learning potential and appropriateness for remedial retraining include keeping track of the number of repetitions clients need to relearn functional tasks and systematically varying functional tasks during training to see how easily clients can transfer learning across variations of the same task.

Adult↗
PubMed1991

The role of instructions in the transfer of ordinal functions through equivalence classes.

In two experiments, adult subjects completed match-to-sample training and testing to establish four equivalence classes of four figures each. Then the subjects were taught one three-position sequence consisting of one stimulus from Class 1, one from Class 2, and one from Class 3. Inclusion of Class 4 stimuli in sequences was never reinforced, but two different stimuli from Class 4 appeared as distractors on each sequence trial. Tests assessed whether subjects would produce novel three-position sequences composed of members of Classes 1 through 3 that had not been used in sequence training. Three subjects in Experiment 1 received instructions about the match-to-sample and sequencing tasks, in addition to training contingencies. All 3 demonstrated equivalence class formation after match-to-sample training. After they were taught one sequence with one member of Classes 1 through 3, none of these subjects produced untrained sequences with other equivalence class members reliably. One additional sequence was trained directly; thereafter 1 subject showed some evidence of transfer of the trained ordinal functions across the remaining members of the equivalence classes, but the other 2 did not. Following a review of equivalence class training and testing and a review of the original sequence training, all 3 subjects produced most of the predicted, untrained sequences on tests. Experiment 2 replicated Experiment 1 with 2 adults but omitted all instructions except the minimal ones necessary to initiate responding. Unlike the subjects in Experiment 1, both of these subjects demonstrated virtually complete transfer of ordinal functions through the equivalence classes after direct training on just one sequence composed of one member of Classes 1 through 3.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Psychiatric leadership and the clinical team: simulated in vivo treatment planning performance as teamwork proxy and learning laboratory.

Leadership is an important consideration at many levels within behavioral healthcare systems. The authors developed a training program in a large public hospital system that focused on psychiatric leadership and clinical team functioning. In a learning laboratory format, they used videotaped patient simulations as a stimulus for multidisciplinary treatment planning sessions. Structured self-assessments were performed using a preliminary Scale for Leadership Assessment and Team Evaluation (SLATE). Videotaping the sessions provided an additional team self-assessment tool. Other educational activities supplemented the sessions, and teams proposed steps for transferring their learning to other units. The authors emphasize that leadership must foster team learning, which involves developing adaptive capacities and applying them to new clinical situations.

Curriculum↗
PubMed1999

Template-based procedures for neural network interpretation.

Although neural networks often achieve impressive learning and generalization performance, their internal workings are typically all but impossible to decipher. This characteristic of the networks, their opacity, is one of the disadvantages of connectionism compared to more traditional, rule-oriented approaches to artificial intelligence. Without a thorough understanding of the network behavior, confidence in a system's results is lowered, and the transfer of learned knowledge to other processing systems - including humans - is precluded. Methods that address the opacity problem by casting network weights in symbolic terms are commonly referred to as rule extraction techniques. This work describes a principled approach to symbolic rule extraction from standard multilayer feedforward networks based on the notion of weight templates, parameterized regions of weight space corresponding to specific symbolic expressions. With an appropriate choice of representation, we show how template parameters may be efficiently identified and instantiated to yield the optimal match to the actual weights of a unit. Depending on the requirements of the application domain, the approach can accommodate n-ary disjunctions and conjunctions with O(k) complexity, simple n-of-m expressions with O(k(2)) complexity, or more general classes of recursive n-of-m expressions with O(k(L+2)) complexity, where k is the number of inputs to an unit and L the recursion level of the expression class. Compared to other approaches in the literature, our method of rule extraction offers benefits in simplicity, computational performance, and overall flexibility. Simulation results on a variety of problems demonstrate the application of our procedures as well as the strengths and the weaknesses of our general approach.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1987

Effect on gait of motor task learning acquired in a sitting position.

The purpose of this study was to ascertain the importance of learning a motor task in a sitting position and its influence on gait. Thirty-one healthy subjects, divided into three groups, were asked to learn a synchronous heel-up-heel-down rhythm task in a sitting position and to reproduce the rhythm during their gait cycle on three separate occasions over a three-day period. This study provided evidence that training of a subject in a sitting position produced a nonspecific influence during ambulation. The inability to obtain an exact transfer of learning from a sitting position to gait and its implication to the specificity principle of learning are discussed. Some subjects had difficulty maintaining their performance over the three-day period. This finding was attributed in part to the influence of proactive and retroactive inhibition. Mat activities, therefore, seem to have a very limited impact on modifying gait. The clinical implications of these findings are presented.

Adult↗
PubMed1998

Recognition benefits from the reinstatement of a spatial representation of motoric processing.

This study investigated the effect of reinstating the spatial component of motoric processing on recognition memory. In 3 experiments, college students encoded digit strings during a study phase and recognized them during a test phase. During the study phase, participants viewed the digit strings and, in some cases, processed the items motorically by entering them on the numeric keypad of a keyboard. A recognition benefit was found when motoric processing at study was reinstated at test. Additional results showed that recognition could be based on a spatial analogue of the keypressing pattern used to encode the digit strings. These results suggest that the spatial component of a motoric response may serve as a recognition cue for an action. Consistent with the transfer-appropriate processing framework, reinstatement of the entry response or a spatial representation of it improved recognition by increasing the overlap between study and test processing.

Adult↗
PubMed1985

Red nucleus lesions impair acquisition of the classically conditioned nictitating membrane response but not eye-to-eye savings or unconditioned response amplitude.

Following a single electrocoagulating RF lesion aimed at left red nucleus, rabbits received classical conditioning of the nictitating membrane (NM) response. A tone was the conditioned stimulus (CS) and electrostimulation of the eye was the unconditioned stimulus (US). The US was applied to the right eye during the initial phase of training. It was then switched to the left eye to assess transfer of learning and ultimately switched back to the right eye. NM responses were recorded simultaneously from both eyes during each phase of training. Consistent with reports implicating a cerebellar-rubro circuit in this behavior, RN lesions disrupted acquisition of CRs in the eye contralateral to the lesion. Animals with disrupted NM CRs of the right eye resembled controls in showing transfer of conditioning to the left eye. CR-disrupting lesions did not affect UR amplitude.

Animals↗
PubMed1983

Semantic processing can facilitate free recall in mildly retarded adolescents.

The efficacy of semantic processing in free recall was investigated in two experiments with EMR adolescents. In Experiment 1, they were taught to use one of two semantic strategies for memorizing a 15-word list. Compared with controls, neither strategy helped recall either in original learning or transfer. In Experiment 2, one of the semantic strategies, a story mnemonic, was investigated further. Rather than being taught to construct their own stories as in Experiment 1, subjects in Experiment 2 were provided with experimenter-composed stories. They showed better immediate recall and retention after 2 months than did no-strategy controls. However, about 1 year after original learning, the retention of experimental and control subjects no longer differed. Discussion focused on the story mnemonic's potential utility and the criteria for judging such potential, e.g., amount of facilitation, ease of training and performance of the strategy, and the degree of its generalizability.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1990

Cognitive profile of rats exposed to lactational hyperphenylalaninemia: correspondence with human mental retardation.

The present study was designed to provide further information on the enduring cognitive effects of experimental phenylketonuria (PKU) in rats, produced by the administration of alpha-methylphenylalanine and phenylalanine on postnatal days 3-21. These rats evidenced: (1) impaired learning set formation, (2) stimulus perseveration, particularly after an error, and (3) difficulty in utilizing the less salient features of their environment in mastering discrimination problems. In contrast, long-term memory function and the ability to form simple associations did not differ from controls. This pattern of intact and impaired cognitive functions bears remarkable similarity to that of mentally retarded humans and neonatally hyperphenylalaninemic rhesus monkeys, thus affirming the use of rats to study mental retardation. In addition, possible reasons for the mildness of the impairments commonly observed in animal models of severe mental retardation syndromes are discussed. We suggest that transfer of learning paradigms that assess the animal's ability to use information acquired in other problems are more likely to uncover significant cognitive impairments in such models than are procedures that test only the animals' ability to solve a single problem.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Central auditory system plasticity: generalization to novel stimuli following listening training.

Behavioral perceptual abilities and neurophysiologic changes observed after listening training can generalize to other stimuli not used in the training paradigm, thereby demonstrating behavioral "transfer of learning" and plasticity in underlying physiologic processes. Nine normal-hearing monolingual English-speaking adults were trained to identify a prevoiced labial stop sound (one that is not used phonemically in the English language). After training, the subjects were asked to discriminate and identify a prevoiced alveolar stop. Mismatch negativity cortical evoked responses (MMN) were recorded to both labial and alveolar stimuli before and after training. Behavioral performance and MMNs also were evaluated in an age-matched control group that did not receive training. Listening training improved the experimental group's ability to discriminate and identify an unfamiliar VOT contrast. That enhanced ability transferred from one place of articulation (labial) to another (alveolar). The behavioral training effects were reflected in the MMN, which showed an increase in duration and area when elicited by the training stimuli as well as a decrease in onset latency when elicited by the transfer stimuli. Interestingly, changes in the MMN were largest over the left hemisphere. The results demonstrate that training can generalize to listening situations beyond those used in training sessions, and that the preattentive central neurophysiology underlying perceptual learning are altered through auditory training.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1981

Visual discrimination defects in cats with temporal or occipital decortications.

Performance on visual discrimination problems by seven control (C) cats, eight cats with lesions in the posterior temporal (PT) cortex, and eight with destruction of the central 3 degrees-20 degrees of the retina's projection to the marginal (M) gyrus was investigated as a function of three variables: discriminanda (objects and patterns, type of pattern), learning requirement (acquisition, transfer, retention), and stimulus-response contingency (simultaneous, successive, concurrent discrimination). Group PT was impaired on 7/11 initial learning and transfer tests and on 0/3 retention tests, with pattern stimuli; it was inferior to Group C on 1/7 object discrimination tasks. No discrimination contingency was more likely than the others to reveal a significant deficit in Group PT. Group M was not impaired relative to Group C on any individual discrimination task. However, it made significantly more total errors on seven discriminations between complex patterns (embedded or masked figures) than Group C. On three discriminations between simple patterns (unmasked figures), Group M made fewer errors than Group C. This pattern of loss is qualitatively similar to, but milder than, that observed in previous cats with M lesions, very probably because the present M lesions were relatively small. The findings indicate that M and PT ablations produce differential impairments in cats, a selective difficulty in differentiating complex patterns after M lesions and a nonselective disruption of pattern discrimination learning after PT lesions.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Evidence for two pitch encoding mechanisms using a selective auditory training paradigm.

The neural mechanisms underlying the perception of pitch, a sensory attribute of paramount importance in hearing, have been a matter of debate for over a century. A question currently at the heart of the debate is whether the pitch of all harmonic complex tones can be determined by the auditory system's using a single mechanism, or whether two different neural mechanisms are involved, depending on the stimulus conditions. When the harmonics are widely spaced, as is the case at high fundamental frequencies (FOs), and/or when the frequencies of the harmonics are low, the frequency components of the sound fall in different peripheral auditory channels and are then "resolved" by the peripheral auditory system. In contrast, at low F0s, or when the harmonics are high in frequency, several harmonics interact within the passbands of the same auditory filters, being thus "unresolved" by the peripheral auditory system. The idea that more than one mechanism mediates the encoding of pitch depending on the resolvability status of the harmonics was investigated here by testing for transfer of learning in F0 discrimination between different stimulus conditions involving either resolved or unresolved harmonics after specific training in one of these conditions. The results, which show some resolvability-specificity of F0-discrimination learning, support the hypothesis that two different underlying mechanisms mediate the encoding of the F0 of resolved and unresolved harmonics.

Adult↗
PubMed1988

Does transfer of training help children learn juggling?

The effectiveness of four different learning sequences in teaching juggling to 5th grade students was investigated. Practice schedules using combinations of scarves, weighted scarves, beanbags, and balls allowed both identical task elements and learners' time-on-task to be varied during a 3-wk. practice period. The exclusive use of beanbags for practice, prior to testing with balls, resulted in significantly better juggling scores than did the other combinations. While transfer of training occurred for other groups, the amount of students' time-on-task during practice appeared to be a strong influence on final performance.

Child↗
PubMed2002

Response scale transfer for visual speed.

By reversing the presentation order and frequency of stimuli between two series of trials, we studied how the category scale for visual speed is transferred across stimulus contexts. Participants judged five stimulus speeds, using three categories (slow, moderate, and fast). In Experiment 1, mainly frequent speeds (either low or high) occurred on the initial trials. This manipulation produced divergent preshift ratings for identical stimuli. Although subsequent reversal of stimulus context resulted in a reversal of scales, the adjustment was incomplete: The postshift ratings did not match the comparable preshift ones. In Experiment 2, mainly infrequent speeds were presented initially. Now the preshift ratings coincided, but higher postshift ratings occurred with the frequent high-speed rather than with the frequent low-speed stimuli. We conclude that with transfer into a new context, the spontaneous adjustment of response scale is determined (1) by the preshift primacy and the postshift frequency effects and (2) by the preshift frequency effect extended to the postshift trials.

Adult↗
PubMed1996

Transfer to changed serial position in a task of tracking a sequence of light stimuli.

This study examined transfer when different serial positions are changed in a task of tracking a sequence of light stimuli. Thirty subjects were divided into three groups, and all tracked a serial pattern of six movements for 20 acquisition trials. Then, on 20 more transfer trials, the last two movements were reversed for Group I, the second two movements reversed for Group II, and the first two movements reversed for the Group III. Performance during the transfer trials improved over performance during the acquisition trials for Groups I and II but not Group III. Thus, there appeared to be positive transfer when the last and middle parts of the serial pattern were changed. However, there was no positive transfer when the first part of the serial pattern was changed. This indicated a contextual interference effect dependent upon serial position in the performance of a serial tracking task.

Adult↗
PubMed1982

Simulation technology and the fixation phase.

Continuing advances in simulator technology have produced almost totally real instrument and aural cue systems, and a number of specialized G-cuing systems are rapidly being matched to the sensory capabilities and needs of flight crews. Intensive research in visual cuing is providing more and more realistic visual scenes and, in general, flight simulators are becoming more real, more complex, and more expensive. It is suggested that Fitts' "fixation" phase of skill acquisition does not require a flight environment, or even a reproduction of the flight environment, for effective learning and transfer. While similarity between training and operational environments appears to be essential for transfer of training to take place, the concept of similarity may not include the total complex of stimuli available in flight as perceived by the instructor or the simulator designer, but may include only the stimuli perceived by the student as he observes, practices, and validates specific tasks within the period of response fixation. It is suggested that special attention be given to the task information required and the learning functions involved in the fixation phase of skill learning.

Aerospace Medicine↗
PubMed1995

Relative Phase Alterations During Bimanual Skill Acquisition.

The purposes of the research reported here were (a) to examine changes in relative phase during the acquisition of a new coordination pattern and (b) to determine the effect of learning this pattern on the ability to perform other coordination patterns. Ten subjects practiced an upper limb coordination task that required a 90 degrees phase offset and different amplitudes for each arm. A gross approximation of the mean relative phase for the intended coordination pattern occurred quickly, but the attainment of stability occurred much more gradually. These results were accompanied by changes in pattern stability across practice and on various transfer tests. Learning of the new coordination pattern also affected the stability of the antiphase mode, but this effect was only temporary.

Journal Article↗