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At least 595 records · Page 33Linked to original sources
PubMed2000

Prediction of triathlon race time from laboratory testing in national triathletes.

PURPOSE: Four days after competing in an Olympic-distance National Triathlon Championship (1500-m swim, 40-km cycle, 10-km run), five male and five female triathletes underwent comprehensive physiological testing in an attempt to determine which physiological variables accurately predict triathlon race time. METHODS: All triathletes underwent maximal swimming tests over 25 and 400 m, the determination of peak sustained power output (PPO) and peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak) during an incremental cycle test to exhaustion, and a maximal treadmill running test to assess peak running velocity and VO2peak. In addition, submaximal steady-state measures of oxygen uptake (VO2), blood [lactate], and heart rate (HR) were determined during the cycling and running tests. RESULTS: The five most significant (P < 0.01) predictors of triathlon performance were blood lactate measured during steady-state cycling at a workload of 4 W x kg(-1) body mass (BM) (r = 0.92), blood lactate while running at 15 km x h(-1) (r = 0.89), PPO (r = 0.86), peak treadmill running velocity (r = 0.85), and VO2peak during cycling (r = 0.85). Stepwise multiple regression analysis revealed a highly significant (r = 0.90, P < 0.001) relationship between predicted race time (from laboratory measures) and actual race time, from the following calculation: race time (s) = - 129 (peak treadmill velocity [km x h(-1)]) + 122 ([lactate] at 4 W x kg(-1) BM) + 9456. CONCLUSION: The results of this study show that race time for top triathletes competing over the Olympic distance can be accurately predicted from the results of maximal and submaximal laboratory measures.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Intensity of exercise during road race pro-cycling competition.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to quantify the intensity of competition during two professional bicycle stage races: the Tour de France (Tour) and Vuelta a España (Vuelta). METHODS: The HR responses of 18 world class cyclists were recorded during the races and compared with HR ranges that corresponded to four intensities of exercise that were measured in the laboratory with an incremental test to exhaustion 2 wk before each race. The four intensities were: Anaerobic (AN) over the individual anaerobic threshold, which was over 90% of VO2max; intense aerobic (IA), which was between 70 and 90% of VO2max; moderate aerobic (MA), which was between 50 and 70% of VO2max; and recovery (RE), which was < 50% of VO2max. The stages were divided in individual time trial (ITT), flat, or mountain. RESULTS: The mean HR of the Vuelta and Tour were, respectively, 133.8 +/- 17.9 and 134 +/- 18.6 beats x min(-1). The mean total time of each stage was 269.6 +/- 122 and 259.4 +/- 119.9 min. The mean stage time over IAT was 17.5 +/- 15.7 and 24.7 +/- 26 min; the IA time was 75.2 +/- 47.6 and 79.6 +/- 48.3 min; the MA was 97.2 +/- 57.4 and 89.5 +/- 54.9 min. Finally the RE time was 79.6 +/- 60.5 and 65.4 +/- 69.7 min. The percentage of participation related to total time of the race was, respectively, in the Vuelta and the Tour, 12.99 and 16.8% in AN exercise intensity, 29.5 and 29.2% in IA, 32.4 and 31.9% in MA, and 25.1 and 25.2% in RE. There are no differences in AN time among flat, mountain, and ITT stages in each race, except for the mountain stages in the Tour. CONCLUSION: Cycling is a high intensity sport because approximately 93 min in flat and 123 min in mountain stages were above 70% of VO2max. In addition, the time spent at IAT was roughly 20 min regardless of stage type, suggesting that the anaerobic capacity limits performance.

Adult↗
PubMed1995

Race and socioeconomic status in hypertension and renal disease.

Publications within the past year have added to our understanding of the relationships between race, socioeconomic status, hypertension, and renal disease. The catalog of racial differences in hypertension and renal disease has been enriched on several accounts. Some of these differences can be explained by specific intervening variables, but others remain attributed to race itself. Unfortunately, what 'race' actually represents is still subject to debate. This debate should be encouraged, because the lack of a clear concept of race hinders research in this area. The main new finding of the year may be a confirmation by several studies that low socioeconomic status is an independent risk factor for end-stage renal disease, regardless of race. Research explaining the mechanisms by which poverty affects the risk of kidney failure is urgently needed, as some of these mechanisms may lend themselves to preventive intervention. Interventions aimed at improving the serious socioeconomic consequences of treated end-stage renal disease are also receiving increasing attention, and have been shown to improve patient outcomes.

Humans↗
PubMed1999

Effect of race on insurance coverage and health service use for HIV-infected gay men.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether race is associated with health insurance coverage and health service use among gay and bisexual men in the Baltimore center of the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. METHODS: Data from eight semiannual study visits between 1991 and 1996 were used. Descriptive, stratified, and logistic regression analyses were conducted to determine whether race is associated with insurance coverage, medical, or dental service use, after controlling for socioeconomic variables. RESULTS: No difference was found between blacks' and whites' likelihood of having health insurance, private insurance, using inpatient, emergency department services, or antiretroviral medications. Whites were more likely to use outpatient services, particularly if CD4 cell counts were high, and were more likely to use dental services, although blacks were more likely to have dental insurance. CONCLUSIONS: Further research must be conducted to examine cultural, social, and psychological factors that help explain why white gay men use more outpatient and dental services, when other service use is unrelated to race. Investigators should be precise when using race as a variable in health services and epidemiologic research, emphasizing when racial differences truly exist versus when the variable race is a surrogate for another factor.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Gender differences in acute mountain bike racing injuries.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate injury rates and patterns in off-road bicycle racing, and to compare the findings in male and female cyclists. SETTING: The study was conducted from 1994-2001 at a large off-road bicycling competition held for 4 days each summer at Mammoth Mountain, California. DESIGN: Injured cyclists were evaluated at the first aid station or at the local hospital. Registration data were used to estimate the number of male and female competitors in each race. PARTICIPANTS: Cyclists who sustained an injury during a race and were unable to finish the race due to the injury were included in the study. 22 female subjects and 71 male subjects met the inclusion criteria during the 8-year study period. There were a total of 20,769 race participants during the study period. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Injuries were categorized, and injury rates were calculated. RESULTS: The overall injury rate during the study period was 0.77% (22/2,869) for women versus 0.40% (71/17,900) for men (p = 0.01). Fractures were sustained by 45.5% (10/22) of female subjects versus 21.1% (15/71) of male subjects (p = 0.03). Odds ratios indicate that overall, women were 1.94 times more likely than men to sustain an injury and 4.17 times more likely to sustain a fracture. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that although participation in this sport is higher among men, the risk of injury is greater for women.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Race differences in diagnosis and surgery for occupational low back injuries.

STUDY DESIGN: Population-based telephone survey in Missouri. OBJECTIVE: To examine the unique contribution of race to diagnosis and surgery rates in workers' compensation claimants. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: Race differences in diagnostic specificity and rates of surgery may mediate documented differences in workers' compensation case management outcomes (treatment expenditures, disability ratings, and settlement awards) between African Americans and whites with low back injuries. PARTICIPANTS AND METHODS: African American (n = 580) and white (n = 892) workers' compensation claimants with single-incident low back injuries were interviewed regarding diagnoses and treatments received for their injury. Participants were, on average, 21 months after settlement. Analyses examined the association of race (controlling for clinical findings, legal representation, age, gender, and socioeconomic status) with diagnosis (herniated disc vs. regional backache) and surgery. Risk ratios for race were calculated. RESULTS: Whites were 40% more likely than African Americans to receive a herniated disc diagnosis. Of claimants with the latter diagnosis, whites were 110% more likely than African Americans to undergo surgery. CONCLUSIONS: Race differences in diagnosis and surgery may help to explain why African Americans, relative to whites, receive lower workers' compensation medical expenditures, disability ratings, and settlement awards.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Assessment of a race-specific normative HRT-III database to differentiate glaucomatous from normal eyes.

PURPOSE: To determine if a new, normative, race-specific database enhances the ability of confocal scanning laser ophthalmoscopy to differentiate normal from glaucomatous eyes. METHODS: One eye of eligible normal and glaucoma patients was enrolled. All subjects underwent a complete ophthalmologic examination, standard achromatic perimetry (SITA-SAP, 24-2), and confocal scanning laser ophthalmoscopy [Heidelberg retinal tomograph (HRT-II)] within 1 month of enrollment. Racial groups were defined by self-report. Glaucoma was defined by the existence of reproducible SAP loss (pattern standard deviation <5% and/or Glaucoma Hemifield Test outside normal limits) on 2 consecutive fields. Normal subjects had 2 normal visual fields (pattern standard deviation >5% and Glaucoma Hemifield Test within 97% normal limits) and a normal clinical examination. HRT-II examinations were exported to the HRT-III software, which includes a large race-specific normative database consisting of 733 white and 215 black eyes. Moorfields regression analysis (MRA) for the most abnormal optic disc sector was compared between the HRT-II (MRA2) and the HRT-III software before (MRA3-B) and after (MRA3-A) adjustment for race. Sectors outside the 99.9% confidence interval limits ("outside normal limits") were determined to be abnormal. RESULTS: We enrolled 124 black (52 glaucoma, 72 normal) and 96 white (32 glaucoma, 64 normal) subjects. Mean age was 51+/-13 years and 50+/-16 years for blacks and whites, respectively (P = 0.45). Visual field mean deviation was -7.3+/-6.7 db for glaucomatous eyes and -0.4+/-1.1 db for normal eyes (P < 0.001). Sensitivity and specificity for the HRT-II was 71.9% and 95.3%, respectively, for white subjects and 50.0% and 98.6%, respectively, for black subjects. Using the expanded HRT-III database, analysis yielded a sensitivity of 81.3% and specificity of 93.8% for whites and a sensitivity of 71.2% and specificity of 86.1% for blacks. After an adjustment for black ethnicity was made in the HRT-III program, the sensitivity and specificity for blacks was 65.4% and 90.3%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: A new, larger, race-specific HRT-III database increases sensitivity while maintaining specificity for whites and increases sensitivity but decreases specificity for blacks. New software and databases based on race require careful scrutiny before use in clinical practice.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

The influence of patient race and social vulnerability on urologist treatment recommendations in localized prostate carcinoma.

BACKGROUND: In localized prostate carcinoma (PCa), many studies have found that black subjects receive radical prostatectomy (RP) less often than white subjects. Such disparities involve barriers to health care, comorbid illnesses, tumor characteristics, and patient preferences. It is unclear whether differences in urologist treatment recommendations also might play a role. METHODS: Using a randomized, 2 x 2 factorial design, we presented 2000 urologists with a clinical vignette and asked them to recommend treatment of a healthy 70-year-old patient with low-risk, clinically localized PCa. Options included either RP, external beam radiotherapy, brachytherapy, cryotherapy, observation, or hormonal therapy. There were 2 variables within 4 otherwise-identical versions of the vignette: 1) patient race (black vs. white) and 2) social vulnerability (middle-income and married vs. low-income and widowed). We used multivariable logistic regression to model the effects of patient race, social vulnerability, and their interaction on recommendations for RP versus radiotherapy. RESULTS: The response rate was 66.1% (n = 1313). Race and social vulnerability interacted (P = 0.05) such that the highly vulnerable black patient received an RP recommendation 14.4% less often than his less vulnerable counterpart; the difference between the 2 white patients was 4.2%. DISCUSSION: Race interacts with social vulnerability to influence urologist recommendations for RP. Because PCa tends to be more lethal in blacks, urologists may view such patients as good candidates for RP. However, black race may amplify perceptions of social vulnerability, heightening urologists' concerns about poor surgical outcomes and follow-up. These findings affirm the importance of modeling interactions between race/ethnicity and other social variables in health disparities research.

Black or African American↗
PubMed2006

A host-race of the cuckoo Cuculus canorus with nestlings attuned to the parental alarm calls of the host species.

The common cuckoo has several host-specific races, each with a distinctive egg that tends to match its host's eggs. Here, we show that the host-race specializing on reed warblers also has a host-specific nestling adaptation. In playback experiments, the nestling cuckoos responded specifically to the reed warbler's distinctive 'churr' alarm (given when a predator is near the nest), by reducing begging calls (likely to betray their location) and by displaying their orange-red gape (a preparation for defence). When reed warbler-cuckoos were cross-fostered and raised by two other regular cuckoo hosts (robins or dunnocks), they did not respond to the different alarms of these new foster-parents. Instead, they retained a specific response to reed warbler alarms but, remarkably, increased both calling and gaping. This suggests innate pre-tuning to reed warbler alarms, but with exposure necessary for development of the normal silent gaping response. By contrast, cuckoo chicks of another host-race specializing on redstarts showed no response to either redstart or reed warbler alarms. If host-races are restricted to female cuckoo lineages, then chick-tuning in reed warbler-cuckoos must be under maternal control. Alternatively, some host-races might be cryptic species, not revealed by the neutral genetic markers studied so far.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Staggered clines in a hybrid zone between two chromosome races of the harvestman Gagrellopsis nodulifera (Arachnida: Opiliones).

We analyzed a hybrid zone between two chromosome races (2n = 16 and 2n = 22) of a Japanese harvestman, Gagrellopsis nodulifera Sato and Suzuki (Arachnida: Opiliones: Phalangiidae). The hybrid zone is located in the eastern part of Tottori Prefecture, western Honshu. The width of the zone is approximately 5 to 15 km. Three independent tandem fusions/fissions seem to be the main cause of the karyotypic differences between the parental races. Ten karyotypic variants were found in the hybrid zone. They differed by numbers of diploid chromosomes and trivalents detected in meiosis. In most of the collecting sites, karyotypic heterozygotes were less common than expected. A positive correlation was found between number of trivalents in a karyotype and its deficiency rate. In some sites, the deficit of heterozygous individuals was accompanied by an excess of the intermediate homozygotes. One of the three transects across the zone was studied in detail. We found that three types of single heterozygotes (2n = 17, 2n = 19 and 2n = 21) formed a series of successive, spatially separated peaks along the transect. Two types of intermediate homozygotes (2n = 18 and 2n = 20) were also spatially separated. The most parsimonious explanation of such a structure is the staggering of clines of three tandem (or Robertsonian) fusion/fission variants that differentiate the parental races caused by selection against multiple heterozygotes. Analysis of nondisjunction in single heterozygotes demonstrated that there was a strong interindividual variation in nondisjunction rate. The mean frequency of aneuploid MII in single heterozygotes was 0.10 +/- 0.03. Crossover exchanges in some critical regions of trivalents result in abnormal chromosomal configurations: chromosomes with unequal chromatids and dicentric chromosomes. Frequency of crossover-induced chromosomal abnormalities was low in single heterozygotes (approximately equal to 4%), and was unexpectedly high in the double heterozygotes (approximately equal to 15%). Selection against karyotypic heterozygotes is considered as a main evolutionary force responsible for the structuring of the hybrid zone. A positive association between diploid chromosome number and altitude was found. The race 2n = 16 tended to occupy lower altitudes than the 2n = 22 parental race. Differences in ecological preferences may be a result of previous adaptations to different environments in allopatry. A hypothesis concerning the origin and evolution of the hybrid zone is proposed.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

One host shift leads to another? Evidence of host-race formation in a predaceous gall-boring beetle.

We show that a predator, the tumbling flower beetle Mordellistena convicta (Coleoptera: Mordellidae), has formed host races in response to a host-plant shift and subsequent host-race formation by its prey, the gall-inducing fly Eurosta solidaginis (Diptera: Tephritidae). This fly has formed two host races, one that induces stem galls on the ancestral host plant, Solidago altissima (Compositae), and another that induces stem galls on the closely related S. gigantea. We found that subpopulations of M. convicta that attack E. solidaginis galls on the different host plants have significantly different emergence times and, although slight, these allochronic differences are consistent across a range of temperatures. More importantly, we found that beetles assortatively mate according to their natal host plants, and female M. convicta preferentially attack and/or their offspring have higher survival in galls on natal host plants. Our data suggest that subpopulations of M. convicta that attack E. solidaginis galls on S. altissima and S. gigantea have formed host races. This is one of the first studies to demonstrate that a host shift and subsequent host-race formation by an herbivorous insect may have resulted in subsequent diversification by one of its natural enemies.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Comparative investigation of two rotary nickel-titanium instruments: ProTaper versus RaCe. Part 2. Cleaning effectiveness and shaping ability in severely curved root canals of extracted teeth.

AIM: To determine the cleaning effectiveness and shaping ability of ProTaper and RaCe nickel-titanium rotary instruments during the preparation of curved root canals in extracted human teeth. METHODOLOGY: A total of 48 root canals of mandibular and maxillary molars with curvatures ranging between 25 degrees and 35 degrees were divided into two groups of 24 canals each. Based on radiographs taken prior to instrumentation with the initial instrument inserted into the canal, the groups were balanced with respect to the angle and the radius of canal curvature. Canals were prepared using a crown-down preparation technique. After each instrument, the root canals were flushed with a 2.5% NaOCl solution and at the end of instrumentation with NaCl. Using pre- and post-instrumentation radiographs, straightening of the canal curvatures was determined with a computer image analysis program. After splitting the roots longitudinally, the amount of debris and smear layer was quantified on the basis of a numerical evaluation scale, using a scanning electron microscope (SEM). The data established for scoring the debris and the smear layer were separately recorded and analysed statistically using the Wilcoxon test. RESULTS: Two ProTaper and three RaCe instruments fractured; there was no significant difference between instrument types (P > 0.05). Completely clean root canals were never observed. For debris removal, RaCe files achieved significantly better results (P < 0.001) than ProTaper instruments. The results for remaining smear layer were similar and not significantly different (P > 0.05). RaCe instruments maintained the original canal curvature significantly better (P < 0.05) than ProTaper instruments. No significant differences were detected between the instruments (P > 0.05) for the time taken to prepare the canals. CONCLUSIONS: Under the conditions of this study, RaCe instruments resulted in relatively good cleaning and maintained the original curvature significantly better than ProTaper did.

Chelating Agents↗
PubMed1997

Warning: attending a sport, racing or arts venue may be beneficial to your health.

Concerted efforts to create health-promoting sport, racing and arts venues have become possible since the advent of health promotion foundations in four of Australia's eight states and territories. Large numbers of Australians attend sport, racing and arts venues in pursuit of leisure activities. There is evidence that sport and racing participants and spectators, and certain subgroups of the arts community, have adverse risk-factor profiles that make them an ideal target for health promotion interventions. Through the use of sponsorship, health promotion foundations 'purchase' health-promoting policies in sport, racing and arts settings-policies that have the potential to become institutionalised once sponsorship dollars are depleted. This paper discusses the policies 'purchased' by the foundations and outlines a comprehensive surveillance and evaluation system developed for the Western Australian Health Promotion Foundation. The system monitors the implementation of health-promoting environments at the micro level (sponsorship project); intermediate level (sponsored group); and macro level (community). The article concludes by outlining some of the lessons learned in Western Australia. These provide the basis for development of best practice in working with sport, racing and arts groups, and other sectors outside health, to create health-promoting environments.

Advertising↗
PubMed2003

Evaluation of race and ethnicity on alcohol and drug testing of adolescents admitted with trauma.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the incidence of alcohol and drug testing in adolescents admitted for traumatic injury and to analyze these results with reference to race, ethnicity, and gender differences. METHODS: Data were collected on adolescents (aged 12 through 17 years) from the National Trauma Data Bank. Testing statuses for alcohol and drugs were the two primary outcome variables. The results of these tests were the secondary outcome variables. Additional casemix variables included: race, ethnicity, gender, age, Glasgow Coma Scale score, Injury Severity Score, day and time of arrival, and payment source. Hierarchical, multivariable logistic regression models were used to assess the relationship of race, ethnicity, and gender with the primary and secondary outcome variables. RESULTS: Differences noted in the likelihood of alcohol and drug testing among the different racial, ethnic, and gender groups demonstrated an increased likelihood of Hispanic males and African American females to receive alcohol testing (odds ratio [OR]: 1.48; 95% CI = 1.06 to 2.06; and OR: 1.30; 95% CI = 1.01 to 1.67, respectively). Results of testing revealed that females of all races were less likely than males to test positive for alcohol and drugs. Drug and alcohol testing was more common during evenings, nights, and weekends, as well as in the presence of neurologic injury. CONCLUSIONS: Whereas small disparities in alcohol and drug testing were noted in some minority race-based groupings, systematic racial bias is not evident in adolescent trauma patients.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1994

Osteochondral fragmentation of the plantar/palmar proximal aspect of the proximal phalanx in racing horses.

The clinical presentation and outcome of treatment is presented for 26 cases of osteochondral fragmentation of the plantar/palmar proximal aspect of the proximal phalanx. Twenty-three were racing Standardbreds and three were racing Thoroughbreds. The most common reason for presentation was an inability to run straight at high speed. Only eight horses presented for lameness, although on examination 19 were lame. A positive flexion test was recorded in 90% of affected fetlock joints and effusion in 48%. Arthroscopic fragment removal was performed on 23 occasions in 21 horses and arthrotomy in one horse. Of the 16 horses that had returned to racing, 12 had improved their performance, while three showed no improvement, and one was retired for other reasons. In three horses refragmentation occurred after surgery, two of which had improved after initial arthroscopic removal. Degenerative changes within the fetlock joint were detected at surgery in eight horses. Of the four horses treated conservatively, one returned to its previous level of performance temporarily after intra-articular medication, one showed no improvement and two were still resting. Plantar/palmar osteochondral fragmentation of the proximal aspect of the first phalanx is a common cause of low-grade lameness in racing horses, and arthroscopic removal results in improvement in race performance in a high percentage of cases.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Clinical abnormalities detected in post-race examinations of poorly performing Standardbreds.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the clinical abnormalities found on post-race examination of poorly performing Standardbreds. METHOD: The results of 541 post-race veterinary examinations on Standardbreds were analysed. The horses were selected for examination by the stipendiary stewards on the basis of poor performance from a population of approximately 20,000 runners which competed at Harold Park Paceway, Sydney. RESULTS: Clinical abnormalities were detected on post-race examination in 264 of the 541 poorly performing horses. Some horses displayed more than one abnormality. Twenty three individual abnormalities were reported. Seventy three horses had suffered interference-type injuries (cross firing, scalping, over reaching) during the race. Lameness was the second most commonly found abnormality (n = 60), with 73% of these lamenesses being in a forelimb. Twenty nine horses had sacroiliac pain (representing 10.6% of the abnormalities detected). Poor recovery, exercise induced pulmonary haemorrhage, respiratory infection or nasal discharge, gluteal pain, unilateral nasal haemorrhage and mouth injuries complete the list of the ten most common findings. CONCLUSION: Interference-type injuries, lameness and sacroiliac pain were the most common abnormalities found on post-race examination of Standardbreds, which performed poorly.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Efficacy of omeprazole for the prevention of exercise-induced gastritis in racing Alaskan sled dogs.

Exercise-induced gastritis and gastric ulcers are common in humans and horses, and recently have been described in racing sled dogs. The cause of exercise-induced gastric disease is not completely understood in any species, but pharmacologic suppression of acid secretion is an effective treatment in humans and horses. Thus, we tested the hypothesis that omeprazole, a proton-pump inhibitor shown to reduce gastric acid secretion in dogs, would reduce the severity of exercise-induced gastric disease. Three teams of 16 dogs each competing in the 2002 Iditarod Sled Dog Race were recruited for participation. Within each team, dogs were randomly assigned to either treatment (20 mg omeprazole PO q24h) or placebo. Treatments were administered until either completion of the race or withdrawal of an individual dog from competition. Gastric endoscopy was performed in all dogs 24 hours after completion or withdrawal, and the gastric mucosa was scored by using a subjective severity score (0 = normal, 3 = numerous bleeding ulcers). Treatment with omeprazole significantly reduced mean gastric severity score compared to placebo (omeprazole: 0.65 +/- 0.17, placebo: 1.09 +/- 0.18; P = .028), but also was associated with increased frequency of diarrhea during the race (omeprazole 54%, placebo 21%; P = .017). Examination of our data suggests that omeprazole may be an effective treatment for exercise-induced gastric disease in racing sled dogs. However, further investigation regarding the cause and clinical relevance of diarrhea associated with omeprazole treatment must be conducted before omeprazole can be recommended for routine prophylactic treatment in these athletes.

Alaska↗
PubMed1983

Pre-race testing and its role in equine medication control.

In general, blood is the only material on which a practical pre-race testing scheme can be based. Blood testing is not as sensitive as urine testing and detects only about 66 per cent of the drugs detectable in urine. Therefore, pre-race blood testing is always performed in conjunction with post race urine testing. Because blood is easily and rapidly drawn, the use of blood samples in all post race testing schemes is recommended. Pre-race testing is also a relatively expensive proposition, but it is the only method which actually prevents the running of an illegally medicated horse.

Animals↗