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PubMed1996

Developmental changes in the distribution of oestrogen receptor mRNA expressing cells in the forebrain of female, male and masculinized female zebra finches.

In female zebra finches, oestrogens induce a male-like development of forebrain song nuclei such as the hyperstriatalis ventrale, pars caudal (HVC) and robustus archistriatalis (RA) that are normally highly sexually dimorphic. The distribution of oestrogen receptor (ER) mRNA in the vocal control system of male, female and oestrogen-treated female zebra finches was assessed between the day of hatching and adulthood using in situ hybridizations with a zebra finch-specific ER probe. ER mRNA was first expressed in the caudal forebrain at posthatching (P) day P5 to P7. At this age, ER mRNA-expressing cells lined the lateral ventricle. This band of labelling extended into the medial portion of HVC from P15 onwards. ER mRNA was found in the shell of the RA from P20 onwards. ER were not expressed in other vocal control areas at any age. Thus oestrogens seem to induce ER-mediated differentiation of the vocal control system via action in the medial HVC, in the area along the lateral ventricle and in the shell of the RA. This differentiation does not involve oestrogen-induced upregulation of ER in vocal control areas. Since the distribution of ER mRNA in the caudal forebrain was similar in juvenile males and females, ER pattern does not explain the sex-specific differentiation of the song system.

Age Factors↗
PubMed2005

Masculine interest behind high prevalence of female contraceptive methods in rural Nepal.

OBJECTIVE: This article explores the nexus between intraspousal power relations and couples' participation in contraceptive decision-making. Further, it discloses whether perceived gender roles and privilege influence couples' contraceptive behaviour in rural Nepal. METHODS: Two hundred and twenty-three couples from 197 randomly selected households from two rural population clusters in eastern Nepal were interviewed. Additionally, 40 key informants were included to collect in-depth qualitative information. The conclusion provides the essence of the results from quantitative and qualitative analyses. RESULTS: Out of 10 independent variables regarding the social power status of the wives and husbands (education, age, occupation, personal income, household headship, political participation, social participation, access to mass media, exposure to psychological assault and physical assault from husband), four variables, namely education, personal income, exposure to psychological assault and physical assault demonstrated significant influence on wives' participation, while no one variable showed association with husbands' participation in contraceptive decision-making. Despite the husband's domination, husband-wife joint involvement in making contraceptive decisions was common. However, stereotyped gender roles and privilege appeared to be influential in deciding the types of methods to use, to shift the methods, and to terminate using contraception. CONCLUSION: As an unequal conjugal relationship is one of the factors responsible for the husband's domination in the decision-making process, women's empowerment should be an entry-point for the transformation of gender discriminatory attitudes and behaviour. Women's empowerment enhances an equal conjugal relationship, and thereby helps in achieving equal partnership in reproductive health decision-making.

Adult↗