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PubMed2002

Hypnotic imagery as a treatment for phantom limb pain: two case reports and a review.

OBJECTIVE: To provide a theoretical background, to review existing literature and to present new case material relevant to the treatment of phantom limb pain using hypnotic imagery. METHOD: This paper presents two new case reports involving the use of hypnotic imagery procedures in the alleviation of phantom limb pain and reviews 10 previous clinical studies which have involved a similar approach. The earlier studies were identified by electronic and manual searches of the relevant literature. RESULTS: Two main treatment strategies can be identified: (1) ipsative/imagery-based approaches and (2) movement/imagery-based approaches. A common finding is the need to treat the phantom limb as a 'real' body part, to accept its existence as a valid mental representation and to avoid treating the amputation stump as the sole source of the phantom pain sensations. CONCLUSION: Hypnotic procedures appear to be a useful adjunct to established strategies for the treatment of phantom limb pain and would repay further, more systematic, investigation. Suggestions are provided as to the factors which should be considered for a more systematic research programme.

Aged↗
PubMed2002

Hypnotic susceptibility and alterations in subjective experiences.

Pavlov has described hypnosis as a partial sleep. A contemporary approach to this altered state of consciousness will be discussed. Under laboratory conditions subjective and behavioral data will be analyzed after hypnotic induction, shamanic trance and relaxation with listening to music. Role of different cortical regions will be shown after different hypnotic inductions as a function of hypnotic susceptibility. The importance of context will be underlined as an important factor in the possible alteration of consciousness.

Consciousness Disorders↗
PubMed1980

Relationship aspects of hypnotic susceptibility.

If hypnosis is seen from an interpersonal point of view it could be hypothesized that aspects of the relationship existing between the hypnotist and the subject prior to hypnosis would probably be related to the subject's susceptibility to the hypnosis. A study was conducted to test this hypothesis. 19 volunteer subjects were individually tested for hypnotic susceptibility using the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scales, Form A. In each case this was preceded by a short tape-recorded non-directive interview. Four independent raters rated the interviews on 10 behavioral dimensions plus general "hypnotizability," using seven-point scales. Although the coefficients of interrater agreement were generally low, the signs of the correlations between mean ratings and Stanford scores were as predicted in all 11 cases. Three of the correlations were significant. From a principal components analysis on the intercorrelation matrix, three factors emerged of which one was labelled Hypnotic Susceptibility.

Adult↗
PubMed1985

Dreaming and hypnotic susceptibility: a pilot study.

Previous experimental work has indicated that certain stable personality characteristics are reliably associated with differential susceptibility to hypnosis. It is suggested that people who are more susceptible will be characterized by an awareness of dreaming more frequently, vividly and creatively. This study describes the construction of a Dream Questionnaire and the relations of the scores obtained on it to scores previously obtained on the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility. Sex differences were noted in response to the questionnaire. For women, a global score was derived from the questionnaire, and this was positively and significantly associated with hypnotic susceptibility. Men responded rather differently to the questionnaire and as hypnotic susceptibility scores were available for only a more limited number, further analysis was postponed until more data from men may become available. Some suggestions for research are discussed, and the relations between sleep research and hypnosis research are briefly considered.

Adult↗
PubMed1990

Changes of eye-blink activities during hypnotic state.

Three experiments were conducted to examine eye-blink activity during the hypnotic state. The results were as follows: (1) eye-blink rate was dramatically reduced during the hypnotic as compared to the nonhypnotic state, (2) blink-rate variability between events (for example, the task and rest period) was smaller under the hypnotic than under the nonhypnotic state, (3) decrements, after induction of hypnosis, were observed in all aspects of blink-wave attributes (amplitude, duration, slope, and area). These findings can be interpreted in terms of the facilitation of motor inhibition by hypnosis.

Adult↗
PubMed1993

Predicting hypnotic susceptibility via a phenomenological approach.

The hypnotic susceptibility of 300 nursing students was predicted via an instrument called the Phenomenology of Consciousness Inventory. The students experienced the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility and subsequently completed the self-report inventory with reference to their experience of hypnosis. Regression analyses generated a multiple R of .67 between subjects' susceptibility, as measured by the Harvard scale, and their predicted susceptibility, based on the (sub)dimensions of the inventory. Additional analyses gave a validity coefficient of .61 between the Harvard scale scores of the subjects in the present study and their predicted scores, using regression coefficients obtained in an earlier study. The results replicated previous research and suggest that the inventory may be a useful instrument in predicting hypnotic susceptibility in a less obtrusive fashion than the Harvard scale.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

An argument for a qualitative research approach to hypnotic experiencing and perceptually oriented hypnosis.

An argument for the significance of a qualitative research approach to hypnotic experiencing and a perceptually oriented view of hypnosis is presented with hypnosis framed in phenomenological, humanistic, and perceptual terms. An outline of threads of thought in Popper's writings are consistent with such a perspective. Qualitative approaches are noted and support for theoretical discussions leading to deeper understanding of issues of hypnotic experiencing, such as unconscious processes, nonlinear experiences, and researchers' countertransference are examined. Some limitations of current quantitative approaches to examining hypnotic experiencing and myths about qualitative research are discussed.

Humans↗
PubMed2004

A phenomenological and perceptual research methodology for understanding hypnotic experiencing.

Phenomenology and perceptual psychology opens up the essential meanings of hypnosis by presenting a qualitative method as an alternative to the current predominant quantitative method in the study of hypnosis. Scales that measure susceptibility from behavioral and cognitive aspects abound in the hypnosis literature, but understanding the structure of hypnotic experiencing is yet to come. A new qualitative approach to researching hypnotic experiencing by combining aspects of phenomenological research as in work of Giorgi, Moustakas, and Wertz, familiarity with Husserl's philosophy, and a perceptual psychological research method (cf. work by Combs, Richards, & Richards and by Wasicsko). The author utilized this combined methodology to formulate the theory of Perceptually Oriented Hypnosis. This methodology enables the therapist or professional and patient or client to share benefits from the effects of their hypnotic experiencing in its intersubjective sense. This method can be applied in numerous life situations such as teaching and therapy in addition to the experimental situation.

Cognition↗
PubMed1976

Hypnotic recall and flashback: the remembrance of things present.

There are two kinds of flashbacks: the self-programed or intra-individual variety and pre-programed or inter-individual flashbacks re-presenting mythical and narrative event structures which contribute to the survival of the species. Both types of experiences are arousal-state bound and stage (set and setting) or culture bound. Flashbackers may be characterized by (1) their variability (large SD) on perceptual-behavioural tasks pointing to their extensive cognitive or interpretive repertoire, (2) they are minimizers (or reducers) of sensory input (particularly at the peak of a hallucinogenic drug experience), (3) as a group they display high resting heart rates, (4) are hypnotizable and experience), (3) as group they display high resting heart rates, (4) are hypnotizable and hence (5) prefer righ cerebral hemispheric cognition, (6) displaying EEG-alpha dominance in the resting, waking state. Flashback and hypnotic recall differ only in the ways and means by which they are induced. Hypnotic induction, however, is not to be confused with the induced state that may be any ordinary or non-ordinary state of consciousness on the perception-hallucination-meditation continuum which the subject has a least once experienced before. If mind is an open system comprising the individual's mind and the minds of his total environment, i.e. his past and present sets and settings, then for many of us thoughts and actions are hypnotically induced, and memories are flashbacks of those experiences.

Arousal↗
PubMed2000

A benzodiazepine hypnotic facilitates adaptation of circadian rhythms and sleep-wake homeostasis to an eight hour delay shift simulating westward jet lag.

STUDY OBJECTIVES: To determine whether appropriately timed administration of a short-acting benzodiazepine hypnotic, which has proven effective in an animal model of jet lag, also facilitates adaptation of circadian rhythmicity and sleep-wake homeostasis in a human model of jet lag. DESIGN: Subjects participated in two double-blind, placebo-controlled studies of adaptation to an 8-hr delay shift of sleep-wake and dark-light cycles simulating westward travel. Each 9-day laboratory study began with a 3-day habituation period followed by a 24-hr study to obtain basal hormonal and sleep profiles (23:00-07:00). Subjects were then kept awake until 07:00 the next day and slept in darkness 07:00-15:00 for the next five 24-hr spans post-shift. SETTING: N/A. PARTICIPANTS: 6 normal, healthy men 24-31 years of age. INTERVENTIONS: Oral Triazolam (0.5 mg) or placebo given at 04:00 before the first shifted sleep/dark period (3 hours before bedtime) and at 07:00 (at bedtime) on days 2-5 post-shift. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS: Sleep recordings and 24-hr cortisol and growth hormone profiles were obtained at baseline and on the first, third, and fifth days post-shift. Global measures of treatment efficacy were calculated for multiple endpoints representing circadian rhythmicity and sleep-wake homeostasis. With placebo, the shift induced disturbances of sleep and hormonal secretion, and a gradual re-entrainment of circadian rhythmicity. Triazolam significantly facilitated adaptation by accelerating re-entrainment of circadian rhythms (chronobiotic effect) and normalizing markers of sleep/wake homeostasis (hypnotic effect). CONCLUSIONS: Appropriately timed administration of a benzodiazepine hypnotic appears to facilitate the adaptation of both circadian rhythmicity and sleep-wake homeostasis to a shifted dark/sleep cycle. Compounds with combined chronobiotic/hypnotic properties may be useful in conditions of jet lag or night work.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed2000

Thiamine status in liver and brain of rats genetically selected for different sensitivity to hypnotic effect of alcohol.

BACKGROUND: The mechanisms of the different sensitivity or resistance of animals and humans to alcohol are still not completely understood. For further biochemical characterization of animals genetically selected for high-alcohol sensitivity (HAS) and low-alcohol sensitivity (LAS) with the hypnotic effect of alcohol, the thiamine status and thiamine metabolizing enzymes in these animals have been studied. METHODS: We investigated thiamine diphosphate and thiamine triphosphate levels as well as the activity of thiamine-dependent enzyme, transketolase, and thiamine-metabolizing enzymes, thiamine kinase, and thiamine triphosphatase in the liver and brain of HAS, LAS, and CAS (control) rats by standard biochemical techniques. RESULTS: It was found that the activity of transketolase, and the level of the coenzyme form of thiamine, thiamine diphosphate (TDP), were significantly lower in HAS versus LAS rats. The activation of transketolase by the exogenous TDP (TDP-effect) was significantly higher in the liver and brain regions of HAS rats compared with LAS rats. The level of TDP in the liver and cerebellum of HAS rats was significantly lower compared with LAS rats. These results indicate a severe deficiency of TDP in HAS rats. HAS rats have a significantly lower activity of thiamine triphosphatase, the additional source of TDP. Accordingly, HAS rats have much higher thiamine triphosphate levels in the liver and brain, compared with LAS rats. There were no significant differences between groups with respect to the thiamine diphosphatase and thiamine kinase activity. Most of the above parameters had the intermediate values in CAS rats, compared with LAS and HAS rats. These data indicate the possible role of the thiamine phosphate esters and related enzymes in the mechanisms that bring about the differential sensitivity to the hypnotic effect of alcohol. CONCLUSIONS: HAS rats have the genetically mediated thiamine diphosphate deficiency and increased thiamine triphosphate levels, probably due to reduced activity of thiamine triphosphatase in the liver and brain, compared with LAS rats. It can be related with the higher initial sensitivity of HAS rats to hypnotic effect of ethanol.

Alcohol Drinking↗
PubMed2001

[Preliminary report: the effect of flumazenil on the hypnotic dose of propofol in ddY mice].

The present investigation dealt with the effect of simultaneous administration of flumazenil on the hypnotic activity of propofol using a behavioral model of ddY mice. The mixed solution of propofol and flumazenil was administered intravenously into the mice tail vein and the achievement of hypnosis was defined as the loss of the righting reflex. Flumazenil 0.2 mg.kg-1 significantly decreased the required dose of propofol for hypnosis (8.43 +/- 0.46 mg.kg-1) compared to the control group (10.55 +/- 0.55 mg.kg-1). The mixture with a pH-3.9 acetate buffer solution did not change the hypnotic dose of propofol (10.88 +/- 0.62 mg.kg-1). The results suggest that flumazenil might potentiate the hypnotic activity of propofol in ddY mice.

Acetic Acid↗
PubMed2001

Laser-evoked potentials to noxious stimulation during hypnotic analgesia and distraction of attention suggest different brain mechanisms of pain control.

Psychological accounts of hypnosis have hypothesized that hypnosis and attention might share similar mechanisms and that hypnosis simply represents an extensive state of reduced attention. This assumption implies that reports of pain and electrocortical brain responses to painful stimulation should be similarly reduced when subjects are exposed to suggestions of hypnotic analgesia (HA) or requested to distract their attention from painful stimuli (distraction of attention: DA) as compared to a control condition (CC). To test this hypothesis, we recorded event-related electrical brain potentials to noxious laser-heat stimuli and pain reports during HA, DA, and CC from subjects highly susceptible to hypnotic suggestions. Pain reports were significantly reduced during HA and DA as compared to CC. The amplitudes of the late laser-evoked brain potential (LEP) components N200 and P320 were also significantly smaller during DA than during CC. However, no significant difference of these late LEP amplitudes was obtained for HA as compared to CC. Results indicate that hypnotic analgesia and distraction of attention represent different mechanisms of pain control and involve different brain mechanisms.

Adult↗
PubMed1995

[The transition of psychotropic drugs in Japanese Pharmacopoeia (JP) (Part 8). The adoptiion of barbiturates, hypnotics and sedatives in Japanese Pharmacopoeia (JP) and transition of the standards and the test methods].

This is the study on the transition of the standards and test methods for barbiturates drugs (Bar-d) between JP IV (1920) and JP XII (1991). The results are as follows: Many new Bar-d appeared between JP VI (1951) and JP VIII (1971). Then many kinds of test methods for Bar-d were studied between JP VII (1961) and JP VIII (1971) and common and precise test methods were established. It is thought that Bar-d were used widely as hypnotics and sedatives in the 1960's in Japan, but some Bar-d were eliminated since JP IX (1976). The test methods for Bar-d were never revised after JP VIII (1971). It is thought that the first choice drugs for hypnotics and sedatives in Japan have transferred from Bromides and Bar-d to Benzodiazepines and the demand of Bar-d as hypnotics and sedatives has declined.

History, 20th Century↗
PubMed2002

Hypnotically induced emotional numbing: a real-simulating analysis.

This study compared 20 real, hypnotized and 20 simulating, unhypnotized participants who were administered a hypnotic induction and then presented with emotionally distressing and neutral visual images. Half were administered a hypnotic suggestion for emotional numbing. Reals and simulators who received the emotional numbing suggestion reported comparably less responsivity to distressing stimuli than others. Whereas emotionally numb reals displayed little change in electromyographic (EMG) activity during the distressing stimuli, simulators displayed marked reduction in EMG activity. Reals (not simulators) displayed a dissociation between their affective response and awareness of the negative content of the stimuli following the numbing suggestion.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

[The peculiarities of hypnotic states in patients with borderline mental disorders].

Two hundreds and eighteen patients with borderline mental disorders have been examined. After the first session of hypnosis suggesting therapy, 5 clinical variants of hypnotic states (physiological, asthenic, phobic, hysterical and mixed) were distinguished. Additionally, 40 patients have been interviewed for obtaining a formalized, according to adjectives used by the patients, description of experiences during the hypnotic session. Using cluster analysis, 5 groups were formed characteristics of which strongly correlated with earlier clinical description and therapeutical efficacy. The results allow better understanding of hypnotic states specificity as well as more precise prognosis of a therapeutic effect.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

[Dynamics of spatial synchronization of brain biopotentials in intensive attention during hypnotic state].

Twelve psychiatrically normal women aged 21-38 years were examined in awakened and hypnotic state using an EEG method with evaluation of spatial synchronization of brain biopotentials (SSBB). Suggesting of high intensive attention to the subjects in hypnotic state leads to substantial reorganization of SSBB manifesting as SSBB increase between both occipital regions, right temporal and other brain cortex areas. Dynamics of brain SSBB in intensive attention in awakened and hypnotic state is of opposite character that is likely to be the result of temporary switching off of the functions of the frontal brain cortex areas, providing the conscious control and regulation of the current activity.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

[Cognitive-behavioral treatment of insomnia and its use during withdrawal of hypnotic medication].

Insomnia is a widespread health problem that often leads to the use of hypnotic medication. Among the available pharmacological agents to treat insomnia, benzodiazepines (BZD) present some undesirable effects, entailing risks of tolerance and dependence, and increased risk of automobile accidents, falls and fractures in the elderly. Cognitive-behavioral treatment (CBT) of insomnia, which focuses on psychological and behavioral factors that play a role in maintaining sleep-related problems, is efficient to improve sleep in the elderly who suffer from primary insomnia. This treatment may represent an alternative to pharmacotherapy or again be complementary during discontinuation of hypnotic medication. The CBT of insomnia may include different components such as stimulus control, sleep restriction, relaxation, cognitive restructuring and sleep hygiene. For people who are dependent to BZD or other hypnotic medication, a supervised tapering based on attaining successive objectives is generally added to the CBT of insomnia.

English Abstract↗