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PubMed2006

Urbanicity during upbringing and bipolar affective disorders in Denmark.

BACKGROUND: It has been suggested that known or suspected risk factors for schizophrenia may also be of importance for other psychoses, but the empirical evidence regarding this is limited. Urbanicity of place of birth and during upbringing has been shown to be related to the risk of schizophrenia. Few studies of urbanicity in relation to bipolar affective disorder exist. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the potential association between urbanicity at birth and during upbringing and the risk of bipolar affective disorder. METHOD: Using data from the Danish Civil Registration System, we established a population-based cohort of 2.04 million people born in Denmark during 1956-1986, which included information on place of residence during upbringing. Bipolar affective disorder in cohort members was identified by linkage with the Danish Psychiatric Central Register. RESULTS: Overall, 2232 people developed bipolar affective disorder during 1971-2001. We found evidence of an increased risk associated with residence in the provincial city; individuals, who at the 15th birthday lived in the provincial city, had a risk of 1.23 (1.08-1.41). This increased risk was explained solely by an increased risk associated with residence in Aarhus; at the 15th birthday, people residing in Aarhus - the largest of the three Danish provincial cities - had a 1.83 (1.56-2.14) increased risk of bipolar affective disorder (p < 0.001). Urbanicity during upbringing (p = 0.13) had no significant effects on the risk of bipolar affective disorder. CONCLUSIONS: We found no evidence of a dose-response relationship between urbanicity at birth (and during upbringing) and the risk of bipolar affective disorders in Denmark, but found some evidence that the diagnostic practices used in Aarhus differed from the rest of Denmark.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1997

Dreamy states and psychoses in temporal lobe epilepsy: mediating role of affect.

Among 104 patients with temporal lobe epilepsy treated in our clinic between 1992-1995, thirteen patients with repeated dreamy states were evaluated for affective manifestations of dreamy states and their relationship with psychotic states. The types of dreamy states were classified as déjà vu, jamais vu and reminiscence. The affective experiences during dreamy states were evaluated as positive, negative or neutral. As a result, seven patients had déjà vu and/or reminiscence: seizure manifestations in four of these patients were affectively evaluated as positive (familiar and/or pleasurable), and three as neutral. Six cases had experience of jamais vu: five of them were affectively evaluated as negative (mostly fear), and one as neutral. Psychiatrically, only four patients with jamias vu accompanied by feelings of fear had mental disorders: a chronic paranoid-hallucinatory state in two cases, a chronic paranoid state in one case, and obsessive-compulsive symptoms in one case. Other patients who had positive or neutral affect did not demonstrate psychiatric disturbances. Thus, most patients with jamais vu were accompanied by negative affect of fear, and those patients with jamais vu tended to show more psychotic symptoms than those with reminiscence or déjà vu, which were associated with positive or neutral affects. Based on these results, we discuss the possibility that repeated negative feelings associated with jamais vu are one of the causes for developing epileptic psychoses.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Affective and anxiety disorders in a German sample of diabetic patients: prevalence, comorbidity and risk factors.

AIMS: The aims of this study were to examine (1) the prevalence of clinical and subclinical anxiety and affective disorders in a sample of diabetic patients attending a secondary care clinic in Germany and (2) risk factors associated with the occurrence of these disorders. METHODS: Four hundred and twenty diabetic patients (36.9% Type 1; 24.7% Type 2; 38.4% Type 2 with insulin) participated in a questionnaire-based screening survey. Those who screened positive received a diagnostic interview. RESULTS: Prevalence of clinical affective disorders was 12.6%, with an additional 18.8% of patients reporting depressive symptoms without fulfilling all criteria for a clinical affective disorder. The prevalence of anxiety disorders was 5.9%, with an additional 19.3% of patients reporting some anxiety symptoms. The comorbidity rate of affective and anxiety disorders was 1.8%, whereas 21.4% of the diabetic patients reported elevated affective as well as anxiety symptomatology. Logistic regression established demographic variables such as age, female gender and living alone as well as diabetes-specific parameters such as insulin treatment in Type 2 diabetes, hypoglycaemia problems and poor glycaemic control as risk factors for affective disorders. For anxiety symptoms female gender, younger age and Type 2 diabetes were significant independent variables. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of affective disorders in diabetic patients was twofold higher than in the non-diabetic population, whereas prevalence for anxiety disorders was not increased. Analysis of risk factors can facilitate the identification of patients who are at a greater risk for these disorders.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Hemispheric asymmetries in children's perception of nonlinguistic human affective sounds.

In the present work, we developed a database of nonlinguistic sounds that mirror prosodic characteristics typical of language and thus carry affective information, but do not convey linguistic information. In a dichotic-listening task, we used these novel stimuli as a means of disambiguating the relative contributions of linguistic and affective processing across the hemispheres. This method was applied to both children and adults with the goal of investigating the role of developing cognitive resource capacity on affective processing. Results suggest that children's limited computational resources influence how they process affective information and rule out attentional biases as a factor in children's perceptual asymmetries for nonlinguistic affective sounds. These data further suggest that investigation of perception of nonlinguistic affective sounds is a valuable tool in assessing interhemispheric asymmetries in affective processing, especially in parceling out linguistic contributions to hemispheric differences.

Acoustic Stimulation↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Affective modulation of pain in substance-dependent veterans.

OBJECTIVE: Prior work suggests that positive affect inhibits pain while negative affect facilitates it. The current study sought to determine whether: 1) affective modulation of pain extends to a patient population; 2) cocaine and alcohol dependence influences the pattern of modulation; and 3) affective modulation of pain is mediated by changes in arm temperature. DESIGN: Thirty-seven participants with and without substance dependence (14 alcohol, 13 cocaine, 10 none) attended three experimental sessions intended to induce emotions (negative, neutral, positive) by picture-viewing. Following emotion-induction, participants were asked to submerge their arm in 33 degrees F water and keep it there until they reached tolerance. During submersion, pain ratings were made on a mechanical visual analog scale (M-VAS). OUTCOME MEASURES: Latency from submersion to first movement of the M-VAS (pain threshold) and latency to arm removal (pain tolerance) were measured. Arm temperature and manipulation checks for emotion-induction (corrugator electromyogram, heart rate, skin conductance, self-report) were also recorded. RESULTS: Manipulation checks confirmed that targeted affective states were achieved. Pain threshold and tolerance were higher after viewing pleasant pictures than after unpleasant ones. Although arm temperature did vary based on the affect induced, analyses suggested that temperature did not influence pain outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Affect modulates pain perception in patients and does not appear to be mediated by changes in arm temperature. Additionally, pain modulation was not significantly influenced by cocaine or alcohol dependence. These data are encouraging, because they suggest that nonpharmacological methods of pain modulation may be effective in substance-dependent individuals.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Concordance of clinical forms of epilepsy in families with several affected members. Italian League Against Epilepsy Genetic Collaborative Group.

Evidence for genetic heterogeneity in epilepsy is strong. We evaluated the concordance of clinical forms in the same family in a series of families with several cases of idiopathic epilepsy, collected as part of the Study on the Genetics of Epilepsy of the Italian League against Epilepsy (LICE). The studied families had at least three members affected by an idiopathic form of epilepsy in one or more generations. Seventy-four families (with a total of 296 affected members) have been analyzed; two families had cases with benign neonatal familial convulsions (BNFC); in 25% of the remaining families all members were affected by the same clinical form, 13.9% had a prevalent clinical form with only one affected member with a different seizure type, 36.1% had two clinical forms, and 25% had three forms of epilepsy in the same family. There are no clinical differences in the form of epilepsy between the families concordant for one clinical form and families with two or three clinical forms of idiopathic epilepsies. The distribution of the clinical form in the affected relatives in our families showed the higher concordance with the proband in febrile convulsions (FC, 70.8%) and in epilepsy with generalized tonic-clonic seizures (EGTC, 63.0%). FC and EGTC were highly diffused in the affected relatives in the families with other forms of idiopathic epilepsy, above all in the more distantly related affected family members. In our families we observed a rare associated between childhood absence epilepsy (CAE) and juvenile myoclonic epilepsy (JME).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Epilepsy↗
PubMed1986

Cholinergic mechanisms in affective disorders. Future directions for investigation.

Advances in clinical and basic research methodology combined with clearly articulated concepts create new opportunities for researching the roles of cholinergic mechanisms in the pathophysiology of affective disorders. Areas for study include: roles of cholinergic mechanisms in mediating effects of stress and cholinergic mechanisms linking the pathophysiologies of affective and panic disorders, use of pharmacologic agents to produce cholinergic system supersensitivity in modeling biologic aspects of affective illness, use of multigenerational intrapedigree studies of cholinergic markers associated with affective disease, research into the neurobiology of lithium and ECT as they pertain to muscarinic cholinergic mechanisms, study of the interrelationship of sodium, calcium and lithium ion metabolism and their relationship to cholinergic-monoaminergic interaction, the development of brain imaging strategies and techniques, e.g., positron emission tomography (PET), to measure changes in cholinergic receptor density and affinity as a function of clinical state, identification and validation of a peripheral model of the central muscarinic receptor, study of the pharmacology of abusable substances and its relationship to mechanisms regulating mood, affect, psychomotor function and other variables related to the affective disorders, and development of in vitro and in vivo models useful in studying the physiology and biochemistry of the interaction of cholinergic and monoaminergic neurons. These models may allow us to bridge the traditional cholinergic and monoamine hypotheses of affective disorders.

Antidepressive Agents, Tricyclic↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Bronchopulmonary disease in the cat: historical, physical, radiographic, clinicopathologic, and pulmonary functional evaluation of 24 affected and 15 healthy cats.

The results of clinical and pulmonary functional evaluation of 24 cats with bronchopulmonary disease and 15 healthy cats are presented. Affected cats had historical evidence of excessive reflexes (coughing, sneezing); physical evidence of airway secretions (crackles), obstruction (wheezing), and increased tracheal sensitivity; radiographic evidence of bronchial and interstitial lung disease; and cytological evidence of airway inflammation or mucous secretions. Bacterial isolates from healthy and affected cats were predominantly Gram-negative rods, indicating that bronchi of cats are not always sterile and that normal flora should be considered in interpreting cultures from cats with suspected bronchopulmonary disease. Cats were grouped according to relative disease severity based on scored historical, physical, and radiographic abnormalities. The mean (+/- standard deviation) baseline lung resistance measurement in healthy cats was 28.9 cm H2O/L/s (+/- 6.2 cm H2O/L/s), whereas in mildly, moderately, and severely affected cats it was 38.3 cm H2O/L/s (+/- 21.5 cm H2O/L/s), 44.8 cmH2O/L/s (+/- 7.7 cm H2O/L/s), and 105.2 cm H2O/L/s (+/- 66.9 cm H2O/L/s), respectively. In healthy cats, dynamic lung compliance was 19.8 (+/- 7.4), whereas in mildly, moderately, and severely affected cats it was 14.7 mL/cm H2O (+/- 3.8 mL/cm H2O), 17.7 mL/cm H2O (+/- 6.9 mL/cm H2O), and 13.0 mL/cm H2O (+/- 7.9 mL/cm H2O), respectively. Thus, airway obstruction was present in many of the affected cats. Based on acute response to the bronchodilator, terbutaline, airway obstruction was partially reversible in many affected cats, although the degree of reversibility varied. Furthermore, based on bronchoprovocation testing, 6 (of 7) affected cats evaluated also had increased airway responsiveness to aerosolized methacholine.

Airway Obstruction↗
PubMed2000

Familial expression of anti-Saccharomyces cerevisiae mannan antibodies in affected and unaffected relatives of patients with Crohn's disease.

BACKGROUND: Crohn's disease is a familial disorder, and antiglycan antibodies to the cell wall mannan of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (ASCA) are highly correlated with Crohn's disease. AIMS: To determine whether there is a familial pattern for expression of serum levels of anti-mannan Ig, and whether this trait is expressed in clinically unaffected Crohn's disease family members. METHODS: 349 patients with Crohn's disease, 87 Crohn's disease affected relatives, 333 inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) free relatives, 58 spouses, and 190 healthy control patients were studied. Serum IgG and IgA binding activity to S cerevisiae cell wall mannan was quantitated by ELISA. RESULTS: A high percentage of patients with Crohn's disease (51.9%) and affected family members (56.3%) were seropositive for anti-mannan Ig, compared with the normal control population (3.7%). Seropositive and seronegative phenotypes of Crohn's disease probands were correlated among all affected relatives, and this association was stronger in affected first degree relatives. Statistical intraclass correlations of quantitative anti-mannan Ig levels revealed significantly less variation within, rather than between families. A significant familial aggregation was observed for affected relatives; this was even stronger for unaffected relatives. While a significant familial aggregation was observed among unaffected siblings pairs, there was no significant correlation among marital pairs. CONCLUSION: Results show that anti-mannan Ig in family members affected and unaffected with Crohn's disease is a familial trait for both affected and unaffected relatives. The lack of concordance in marital pairs indicates that familiality is due in part to a genetic factor or childhood environmental exposure.

Adult↗
PubMed1993

Neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1): knowledge, experience, and reproductive decisions of affected patients and families.

Eighty-one subjects (56 affected patients and 25 parents of isolated affected cases) from 63 families with neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) on the North Western Regional Genetic Family Register (NWRGFR) were interviewed. Patients were interviewed either before (n = 26) or after (n = 55) genetic counselling. In the group as a whole, knowledge of the clinical features and the genetic aspects of the condition was poor (mean score 7 within the range of 0 to 18). The following factors were significantly associated with higher knowledge: (1) genetic counselling, (2) higher social class, (3) child with NF1, (4) when NF1 had influenced reproductive decisions, (5) young age at diagnosis, and (6) member of a patient support group. The majority of the affected subjects perceived themselves to be more severely affected than by medical classification, with persons who had been diagnosed later in life, had a child with NF1, or who were concerned about the cosmetic aspects of the disease perceiving themselves to be more severely affected. Assessment of the psychosocial effects of NF1 at different stages of life showed that 63% of affected subjects experienced difficulties at school and 48% said that the condition, particularly cosmetic aspects, caused anxiety during adolescence (n = 54). These difficulties may have contributed to later problems with career attainment and confidence in relationships. Seventy-seven percent of parents stated that their child was experiencing difficulties at school relating to NF1 (n = 51). Of the subjects at risk of having a child with NF1 and who knew about NF1 before having their family (n = 32), 45% said that it had influenced their reproductive decisions. Of 29 subjects who were still considering children, 41% wished to have prenatal diagnosis in a future pregnancy, but only three subjects stated that they would terminate an affected pregnancy.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

Structural MRI of the brain in presumed carriers of genes for schizophrenia, their affected and unaffected siblings.

BACKGROUND: Schizophrenia is a highly heritable disorder associated with structural brain abnormalities. The aim of this study was to establish if the gene(s) for schizophrenia are associated with specific abnormalities of brain structure. SUBJECTS: Six sibships from multiple affected families were recruited. Each sibship consisted of one patient with schizophrenia, one "obligate carrier" without the disorder but with an affected child, and one "non-affected non-carrier". Such sibships are very rare, but present a powerful opportunity to separate the associations of genotype and phenotype. Obligates presumably have the gene(s) but not the disorder, affected siblings have both, whereas non-affected non-carrier siblings have neither. METHOD: Brain MRI was conducted with a semiautomated region of interest analysis. The risk of false positive findings was reduced by collapsing brain regions and sides into five regions and comparing groups by repeated measures analysis of variance. RESULTS: In terms of whole brain volumes and volumes of cortical structures, obligates resembled their non-affected non-carrier siblings, both groups having significantly greater volumes than their schizophrenic siblings (p=0.01 and p=0.04). Obligates also had significantly smaller ventricles than their schizophrenic siblings (p=0.03). However, with respect to the amygdalohippocampal complex, the obligates' brains resembled those of their schizophrenic siblings, both groups showing a significant reduction in volume when compared with their non-affected non-carrier siblings (p=0.001). CONCLUSIONS: In the families studied, reductions in volumes of cortical structures and reductions in whole brain volume seem to be associated with the phenotype of schizophrenia. By contrast, reduced volume of the amygdalohippocampal complex seems to be associated with genetic risk for the disorder even in the absence of disease.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Coats disease: smaller volume of the affected globe.

PURPOSE: To determine whether a significant smaller volume of the affected globe, compared with that of the normal globe, is an additional feature of Coats disease. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Ocular globe volume was assessed in 13 children (11 boys, two girls; age range, 0.6-14 years; mean age, 4.1 years) with Coats disease and in 18 (eight boys, 10 girls; age range, 0.5-12 years; mean age, 3.6 years) with unilateral retinoblastoma. Orbital computed tomographic scans were available for all children; magnetic resonance images were available for 11 children-seven with Coats disease and four with retinoblastoma. For volume estimation, anteroposterior and equatorial diameters of ocular globes were measured. Statistical analysis was conducted with univariate and multivariate methods. RESULTS: In children with Coats disease, the mean volume of the affected globe was 4,877.03 mm(3) (range, 2,951.47-6,284.70 mm(3)) and that of the normal globe, 6,018.00 mm(3) (range, 4,062.32-7,509.26 mm(3)). In children with retinoblastoma, the mean volume of the affected globe was 4,557.06 mm(3) (range, 1,612.01-7,463.00 mm(3)) and that of the normal globe, 4,402.11 mm(3) (range, 1,360.46- 7,463.00 mm(3)). The Coats disease population had a significantly smaller volume of the affected globe (z = -3.1009; P =.002); the retinoblastoma population did not have a statistically significant trend toward a bigger affected globe volume (z = -1.7064; P =.088). The difference between the affected globe volume and the normal globe volume in children with Coats disease was the only significant independent variable (P =.005). CONCLUSION: A significantly smaller volume of the affected globe is an additional feature of Coats disease.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Persistent mucus accumulation: a consequence of delayed bronchial mucous cell apoptosis in RAO-affected horses?

This study examined the contribution of delayed apoptosis of bronchial mucous cells to mucus accumulation in equine recurrent airway obstruction (RAO). In pilot studies, Bcl-2, an apoptosis inhibitor, was detected in airway mucous cells of RAO-affected horses in remission and during acute disease, when most mucus was secreted. To study whether delayed apoptosis results in an increase in the number of mucous cells during disease recovery, six RAO-affected and six control horses were fed hay for 5 days to induce inflammation and then pellets for 7 days to partially resolve RAO before euthanasia. RAO-affected horses had more airway obstruction and luminal mucus than control horses under both management systems. At the time of euthanasia, RAO-affected horses had more inflammation and Bcl-2-positive bronchial mucous cells than control animals. In horses with >10 and <10 neutrophils per microliter of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, >50% and <10% of mucous cells stained positive for Bcl-2, respectively. No differences in mucous cell number or amount of stored mucosubstance were observed between RAO-affected and control horses, but in RAO-affected animals, the amount of stored mucosubstance decreased as the number of neutrophils in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid increased. Because the number of mucous cells was similar in both groups of horses but only mucous cells of RAO-affected horses expressed Bcl-2 during recovery from acute disease, a conclusive role for Bcl-2 in prolonging bronchial mucous cell life could not be determined. Future studies are needed to compare horses that are kept in remission for prolonged periods when all mucous cells are fully developed.

Airway Obstruction↗
PubMed1978

Schneider-negative schizophrenia and schizo-affective illness.

A slightly modified version of provisional research criteria for so-called 'schizo-affective and related psychosis', as recently published by the St. Louis Group, was used to investigate the case records of 116 Schneider-oriented first admissions of schizophrenics without first rank symptoms (Schneider-negative) who were hospitalized in a German center during the years 1962-1971. The sample contained 19.8% (23 cases) of research diagnosable schizo-affective illness as thus defined. 'Full' affective research criteria were satisfied by 13 of these schizo-affectives, and 10 were able to fulfill the 'adjusted' affective criteria assumed to be indicative of labile mixed mood states. The sample was then further analyzed in terms of 'schizophreniform' psychoses and 'atypical schizophrenia'. The findings seem to support the view that a non-negligible segment (23.3%) of Schneider-negative schizophrenia actually may represent either research diagnosable schizo-affective or affective disorders or satisfy criteria for both diagnoses.

Diagnosis, Differential↗
PubMed1988

Position of affective symptomatology in the course of delusional psychoses.

The present study investigates the frequency, gender distribution, mode of appearance, and prognostic value of affective symptoms in a group of 90 patients with paranoid disorders of various etiologies (with the exception of marked organicity) who underwent a follow-up control. It appears that affective symptoms manifest more frequently than the brunt of delusional and hallucinatory ones, whereby the pronounced differences in gender (preponderance of females) that appear in acute states disappear in the course of the illnesses. Altogether, the frequency of affective symptoms diminishes just as that of delusions and hallucinations. Paranoic syndromes (simple delusional syndrome with a logically organized structure corresponding to the classical concept of paranoia) are characterized by a particularly frequent occurrence of dysphoric (irritable) mood, systematic and unsystematic paraphrenias by a depressive mood. Delusion subsided in all three delusional entities in about 50% of the cases; however, defect develops in unsystematic paraphrenias more often to a statistically highly significant degree than in the other two forms. Despite the expected low stability of affective symptoms over longer periods of time, the presence of affective syndromes has a high prognostic value, even in a population characterized primarily by the presence of a mood-incongruent delusion. The results of this investigation suggest that Jaspers' hierarchical principle, still important for many diagnostic systems, according to which the presence of delusions and hallucinations is considered to be pathognomonic for schizophrenia and takes priority over any affective ones, be abandoned. The consequence this would have for the theoretical basis of the diagnosis of endogenous psychoses is that apart from affective syndromes only schizophrenic nuclear symptoms would form the basis of nosological diagnosis, and so-called productive symptoms (delusions and hallucinations) would be construed as a superstructure.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1991

Social competence and positive and negative symptoms: a longitudinal study of children and adolescents at risk for schizophrenia and affective disorder.

OBJECTIVE: The authors longitudinally examined social competence and positive and negative symptoms in children at risk for schizophrenia, children at risk for affective disorder, and matched normal subjects. METHOD: The subjects were offspring of parents with schizophrenia or affective disorder and normal comparison subjects matched on age, sex, and socioeconomic status. Ratings of social competence (Premorbid Adjustment Scale), affective flattening and poverty of speech (Scale for the Assessment of Negative Symptoms), and positive formal thought disorder (Scale for the Assessment of Positive Symptoms) were based on videotaped psychiatric interviews conducted in childhood (N = 144), early adolescence (N = 127), and adolescence (N = 106). RESULTS: In childhood, there were no significant group differences. In early adolescence, the subjects at risk for schizophrenia had poorer social competence than those at risk for affective disorder and the normal subjects. In early adolescence, the subjects at risk for schizophrenia also had greater positive thought disorder than those at risk for affective disorder but did not differ significantly from the normal subjects; there were no differences in negative symptoms. In adolescence, the subjects at risk for schizophrenia had poorer social competence and greater positive and negative symptoms than the adolescents at risk for affective disorder and the normal subjects. CONCLUSIONS: During early adolescence and adolescence, poor social competence may be more characteristic of children at risk for schizophrenia than those at risk for affective disorder. Higher levels of positive and negative symptoms may also be specific to subjects at risk for schizophrenia, but only during adolescence.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1993

Are schizophrenia and affective disorder related? preliminary data from a family study.

OBJECTIVE: Most investigators presume that schizophrenia and affective disorder are separate diseases. Others have proposed alternatives to this Kraepelinian view. These alternatives were addressed by preliminary analyses of data from a family study of psychopathology. METHOD: The authors identified 1,895 first-degree relatives of 166 patients with DSM-III schizophrenia, 71 patients with affective disorder, and 85 medical comparison probands; 949 relatives were blindly diagnosed. RESULTS: The risks for schizophrenia and affective disorder (unipolar melancholia and bipolar disorder combined) were significantly higher in the relatives of the schizophrenic probands and the relatives of the probands with affective disorder than in the relatives of the comparison probands. The morbid risk for nonmelancholic depressions was not significantly higher. Among the relatives of the schizophrenic probands, the risk for affective disorder was highest among the relatives of the patients with "core" schizophrenia, who were younger at illness onset, had chronic illness, had severe emotional blunting, and showed few affective features. CONCLUSIONS: Despite limitations, these preliminary analyses, consistent with other studies, suggest some familial relationship between schizophrenia and severe forms of affective disorder.

Adult↗
PubMed1986

Affect availability, tolerance, complexity, and modulation in psychoanalysis: followup of a longitudinal, prospective study.

Evaluation of 22 patients in supervised psychoanalysis showed that affect availability and tolerance changed in a positive direction during the course of psychoanalysis. In this study, we have defined criteria of change that can be clinically observed. The changes observed were present one year following the completion of psychoanalysis. Ratings of analysts' and patients' interviews, and ratings of psychological tests all revealed that patients had derived "therapeutic benefit" in relation to affect experience and management. Discriminations were made among changes in affect modulation, which reflected both loosening and tightening of controls, changes in affect availability, changes in experience of painful affects, and changes in experience of affect complexity. Analysts' interviews and psychological test data reflected notable changes in affect modulation in the direction of increased control, while patients' interviews more often reflected changes in the direction of increased expressiveness.

Adaptation, Psychological↗