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PubMed1998

Urbanization patterns: European versus less developed countries.

This paper develops a model in which the interaction between transport costs, increasing returns to scale, and labor migration across sectors and regions creates a tendency for urban agglomeration. Demand from rural areas favors urban dispersion. European urbanization took place mainly in the 19th century, with higher costs of spatial interaction, weaker economies of scale, and a less-elastic supply of labor to the urban sector than in less developed countries (LDCs) today. These factors could help explain why primate cities dominate in LDCs, whereas a comparatively small share of urban population lives in Europe's largest cities.

Demography↗

PubMed1986

[[Demographic aspects of urbanization in the Lower Yangtze region in China, circa 1500-1900]].

Urbanization trends in the Lower Yangtze region of China from 1500 to 1900 are examined. Data are from a variety of sources, including genealogies, local records, and other literature. An attempt is made to analyze the demographic characteristics of the urban population. "The demographic characteristics in respect to marriage, fertility and mortality found from the genealogies do reveal that there were dissimilarities between the rural and urban dwelling populations. Moreover, findings related to migration tend to support that rural to urban migration was an important factor that speeded up urbanization in the Lower Yangtze Region." (SUMMARY IN ENG)

Asia↗

PubMed1986

Urbanization within the Indonesian economy: a policy dilemma.

"Most Third World countries have serious problems relating to rapid urban growth but attempts to solve urban problems have generally failed. This paper looks at the urban issues of one country, Indonesia, and the attempts by the Indonesian government to control rural to urban migration. Contradictions between macroeconomic and urban policies, however, have undermined government programmes."

Asia↗

PubMed1982

Migration and urban change.

"This paper examines the population development of large urban regions. Several hypotheses about patterns of settlement change in highly urbanized countries are discussed using empirical material derived from IIASA's Comparative Migration and Settlement Study. These hypotheses refer to interrelations between population growth and urban size, the role of migration and natural increase as components of urban population change, overall spatial mobility, hierarchical migration, and the age distribution of migrants moving between, out of, and into large urban areas." The emphasis is on developed countries. (summary in FRE, ITA, JPN, )

Age Distribution↗

PubMed1979

Mexican urbanization since 1821: a macro-historical approach.

The development of the urban system in Mexico since 1821 is analyzed. The "analysis attempts to treat the temporal and spatial diversity of the urban process by first presenting a chronological overview of urbanization for the country as a whole and then considering four important cases of urban development. The particular experiences of Mexico City, Oaxaca City, Merida, and Monterrey will serve to show the regional dimensions of urbanization since 1821 within the broader national and international context."

Americas↗

PubMed1979

Social urbanization in the Cauca Valley, Colombia.

"This paper treats aspects of the urbanization of the countryside occurring in southern Colombia. It focuses on those urban-emanating forces that provide rural people with a perspective of 'city' life. The impact of such things as the construction (or improvement) of roads, the role of the media, return visits by ex-villagers, and the urban visiting of country people [is] discussed in terms of social urbanization. This presentation renews the call for eschewing bipolar models for studying migration/urbanization in favor of a broader and more holistic perspective. Furthermore, this article suggests that urbanization is another manifestation of a type of dependency relationship."

Americas↗

PubMed1987

Urbanization and internal migration.

This is a survey of the U.N. Population Division's contributions to the study of urbanization and internal migration, related research, and publications. In order to review these contributions, the relevant U.N. publications are classified under five broad topics: "estimates and projections of urban, rural and city populations, including problems of data comparability and methods to measure internal migration; monitoring of trends in urbanization; estimates and analyses of migration as a component of urban and metropolitan growth; studies of demographic and socio-economic aspects of urbanization, and studies of demographic and socio-economic aspects of internal migration."

Demography↗

PubMed2002

The rural-urban continuum: variability in statewide serious firearm injuries in children and adolescents.

OBJECTIVE: To compare rates of serious firearm injuries among children and adolescents treated in a statewide trauma system. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We reviewed the Pennsylvania Trauma Systems Foundation (Mechanicsburg) registry from January 1, 1987, through December 31, 2000, for all pediatric and adolescent patients (age 0-19 years) who sustained a serious firearm injury. Data included age, sex, weapon, geographic region, injury circumstance, and outcome. RESULTS: During the 14-year period, 3781 children and adolescents sustained a serious firearm injury and were treated at a participating Pennsylvania trauma center. The population was 90.7% male, with a mean age of 16.5 years. Adolescents (age 15-19 years) represented more than 85% of the study population. There were 744 deaths (19.7%). The urban counties had an average annual population-based rate of serious firearm injury of 28.3/100 000; suburban counties, 2.8/100 000; metropolitan counties, 2.4/100 000; and nonmetropolitan counties, 2.4/100 000. Urban counties had a higher rate for all injury circumstances (unintentional, assault, and self-inflicted) than all nonurban counties. Assault was the most common overall injury circumstance (78.7%), and was the most common circumstance in urban counties (88.5%) and among adolescents (age 15-19 years [84.2 %]). Unintentional injuries predominated in nonmetropolitan counties (56.7%) and in young children (aged <5 years [50.6%] and 5-9 years [61.4%]). Handguns were the most common weapon type in all age groups, geographic regions, and injury circumstances. CONCLUSIONS: Rates of serious firearm injuries among children and adolescents are 10-fold higher in urban than nonurban regions. Assaultive injury mechanisms predominated in urban areas, unintentional injuries in the nonurban counties. Firearm injury statistics are heavily influenced by events in the urban counties. Intervention and prevention strategies need to account for these regional discordances to optimize efficacy.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2004

Using urbanization profiles to assess screening performance.

The large Dutch data sets acquired as a result of population-based cervical smear screening programs can be further exploited to obtain an urbanization-weighted score to gain insight into the quality of the performance of the individual cytology laboratories. Based on the first four digits of the postal code of the screenees, the data are stratified according to urbanization. Urb 1 corresponds to (semi)rural, which includes villages and small townships with less than 20,000 inhabitants; Urb 2, to towns with between 20,000 and 250,000 inhabitants; and Urb 3, to big cities, in this case, The Hague. From the postal code data of the screenees, the urbanization profiles of the laboratories can be calculated. The urbanization degree proved to have a substantial effect on the cytologic scores in the four laboratories. The number of expected, urbanization-weighted patient cases is calculated. Accordingly, the laboratories could be compared with respect to performance. We conclude that laboratories in our screening program were quite similar in performance for the cytologic diagnosis leading to referral to the hospital, with little difference between the actual and the expected, urbanization-weighted number of cases. It is evident that the equation for calculating the expected scores for S5-S9 is relevant for control of quality of care provided by laboratories and regions, but also for the quality of these assessments.

Female↗

PubMed1994

Urbanization gradients and cancer mortality in Uruguay, 1988-1992.

Cancer deaths occurring in Uruguay in the period 1988-1992 were classified by site, sex and residence according to the ninth version of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-9), in order to analyze gradients of urbanization. For this purpose, Uruguayan counties were classified as rural, suburban and urban, using population density as an ordinal indicator of the degree of urbanization. Significant increasing trends with urban excess were observed for cancers of the colon, rectum, lung and female breast. In addition, this study showed significant urban deficits for esophageal, gastric and uterine cancers, contrasting with previous studies. These differences seem to be real rather than artifactual due to misclassification. The study thus provides interesting new findings concerning urban differences between developed communities and a partially developing country.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1993

Urban bioclimatology.

This article deals with the part of urban climatology which is of particular relevance to human beings. Presented first is a summary of all human biometerologically effective complexes, as well as other factors which are relevant to urban planning and which depend on atmospheric conditions in urban structures in a direct or indirect manner. Later, methods for human biometerologically significant assessment of thermal and air pollution components of the urban climate are discussed in detail, because these components can be strongly influenced by urban planning. The application of these methods is illustrated by some results of appropriate investigations in urban areas.

Climate↗

PubMed2003

Urban-rural differences in the occurrence of female depressive disorder in Europe--evidence from the ODIN study.

BACKGROUND: In an earlier paper of the European multi-centre ODIN study (Ayuso-Mateos et al. 2001) we found remarkable urban preponderance in comparison to the corresponding rural site in the female prevalence of depressive disorder in the UK and Ireland. The aim of this paper is to analyse the possible reasons for this finding. METHOD: A representative sample of 12,702 people aged between 18 and 64 residing in specified urban and rural areas were screened by the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) for depressive disorder in four European countries (Finland, Ireland, Norway and the UK). Those over cut-off (BDI score < 12) and a 5 % random sample of those under cut-off underwent diagnostic interview including the SCAN version 2.0, and completed a battery of additional research instruments. RESULTS: The estimated 1-month prevalence of depressive disorder according to ICD-10 was 9 % in the total ODIN sample. A large between-country variation was found in female urban prevalence, with Ireland (Dublin) and the UK (Liverpool) having a remarkably high rate. The women in these same countries showed a significant urban/rural difference, whereas in men and in the total sample this difference was non-significant. Logistic regression analysis including some selected risk factors of depression showed still higher risk of depressive disorder both in Dublin and Liverpool compared with the Finnish urban site (Turku), which had the lowest urban prevalence. In addition, also such factors as lack of confidant and having difficulties in getting practical help from neighbours were important predictors of depressive disorder. Similarly, when analysing the different countries separately, the significance of the urban/rural difference in women remained for Ireland and the UK, indicating that the other risk factors studied could not totally explain the difference. CONCLUSIONS: ODIN is the first European study on occurrence of depressive disorder in both urban and rural settings allowing closer analysis of the urban/rural differences. The most striking result was the large urban/rural difference in women in the two countries from the British Isles which could not be totally explained by the socio-demographic factors included in this study.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2005

Uptake of new drugs in rural and urban areas of Queensland, Australia: the example of COX-2 inhibitors.

OBJECTIVE: This study compared the changes over time in the volume of prescriptions of COX-2 selective inhibitors between rural and urban Queensland to reveal any difference in the uptake of the prescribing of these new drugs between two geographically distinct areas. METHODS: This study used data from an administrative claims database. Dispensing data were obtained for celecoxib and rofecoxib in two areas, one rural and one urban, defined by postcodes. The numbers of consumers in these areas were similar and they were served by similar numbers of general practitioners. The number of defined daily doses (DDDs) of celecoxib and rofecoxib dispensed at specific times was calculated. RESULTS: Statistical analysis revealed no significant difference between the total numbers of DDDs of COX-2-selective non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs dispensed in the rural and urban groups over the period August 2000 to December 2002 (P=0.81). The rate of uptake of usage was also clearly similar between the urban and the rural groups. Total usage peaked in August 2000 in both groups (urban 39 DDD/1,000 people per day; rural 37 DDD/1,000 people per day), coinciding with the pharmaceutical benefits scheme (subsidized) listing of celecoxib. The number of DDDs declined dramatically in the following month, and then peaked again in May 2002 (urban 34, rural 36). The number of DDDs then steadily decreased in both areas after October 2002. CONCLUSION: The results suggest that the marketing of the new COX-2 inhibitors and the patients' anticipation of a safe and effective treatment have overcome the geographical boundaries of Queensland. Both areas had very high rates of uptake of the prescribing of these new drugs.

Adult↗

PubMed2001

Comparison of heavy metal concentrations in tissues of red foxes from adjacent urban, suburban, and rural areas.

The red fox (Vulpes vulpes) is a representative of the canid family with wide distribution in the Northern Hemisphere and Australia. The increasing utilization of urbanized habitats by red foxes prompted us to test whether this species may be used to monitor the presence of anthropogenic pollutants in cities or suburbs. For that purpose, we compared the concentrations of heavy metals (Cd, Pb, Cu, Zn) in foxes from urban, suburban, and rural areas within the municipality of Zürich (Switzerland). The kidney and liver of suburban and rural foxes contained the highest Cd concentrations, whereas urban foxes contained the highest Pb levels. In the kidney of suburban foxes, Cd concentrations increased from a median value of 0.73 mg/kg in juvenile animals to 1.82 mg/kg in adults. Similarly, the liver of suburban foxes contained increasing Cd levels from a median of 0.21 mg/kg in juvenile animals to 0.94 mg/kg in adults. An age-dependent storage of Cd was also found in foxes from the rural surroundings, but no such accumulation occurred in urban foxes from the city center, where even adult animals contained very low Cd levels. Conversely, foxes from the urban center were characterized by elevated Pb concentrations during the first 2 years of life, but this transient Pb accumulation was absent in suburban or rural animals. The liver of juvenile foxes contained a median Pb concentration of 0.99 mg/kg in the city compared to only 0.47 and 0.37 mg/kg in the suburban and rural area, respectively. Thus, we found that animals from separate environmental compartments contain different patterns of tissue residues, implying that red foxes may serve as a bioindicator species to detect certain toxic hazards in urbanized habitats.

Animals↗

PubMed2000

Phenology in central Europe--differences and trends of spring phenophases in urban and rural areas.

In order to examine the impacts of both large-scale and small-scale climate changes (urban climate effect) on the development of plants, long-term observations of four spring phenophases from ten central European regions (Hamburg, Berlin, Cologne, Frankfurt, Munich, Prague, Vienna, Zurich, Basle and Chur) were analysed. The objective of this study was to identify and compare the differences in the starting dates of the pre-spring phenophases, the beginning of flowering of the snowdrop (Galanthus nivalis) and forsythia (Forsythia sp.), and of the full-spring phenophases, the beginning of flowering of the sweet cherry (Prunus avium) and apple (Malus domestica), in urban and rural areas. The results indicate that, despite regional differences, in nearly all cases the species studied flower earlier in urbanised areas than in the corresponding rural areas. The forcing in urban areas was about 4 days for the pre-spring phenophases and about 2 days for the full-spring phenophases. The analysis of trends for the period from 1951 to 1995 showed tendencies towards an earlier flowering in all regions, but only 22% were significant at the 5% level. The trends for the period from 1980 to 1995 were much stronger for all regions and phases: the pre-spring phenophases on average became earlier by 13.9 days/decade in the urban areas and 15.3 days/decade in the rural areas, while the full-spring phenophases were 6.7 days earlier/decade in the urban areas and 9.1 days/decade earlier in the rural areas. Thus rural areas showed a higher trend towards an earlier flowering than did urban areas for the period from 1980 to 1995. However, these trends, especially for the pre-spring phenophases, turned out to be extremely variable.

Climate↗

PubMed2005

Mental health differences between rural and urban men living with HIV infection in various age groups.

Despite the disproportionate increase in rural, Southern residents and older persons during the third era of the HIV/AIDS epidemic, no known study has examined whether older, rural men living with HIV infection face a double jeopardy and have poorer psychosocial profiles than other subgroups of men. We investigated whether area of residence (rural, urban), age (young, middle-age, old), and the interaction of residence and age would be related to mental health factors by using two measurement methods to categorize rural and urban residence (US Census Bureau classification and The Office of Rural Health Policy's, Rural Urban Commuting Area Codes [RUCAs]). We conducted 2-3 hour-long, face-to-face interviews with all but 43 patients who met the study criteria and kept their clinic appointments at three different types of healthcare facilities (i.e., VA, university clinic, public health department) over a 20-month period. The sample consisted of 226 men living in the southeastern US. Rural and urban men of various age groups did not differ in socioeconomic factors, travel distance to clinics, use of medications, satisfaction with care, types of severe stressors, and confidentiality concerns. Using two methods to categorize area of residence, we found that rural men as compared to urban men had similar levels of total stress, AIDS-related stress, social support, active coping and avoidance coping, but higher rates of risk for depression. Rural men had higher levels of non-AIDS-related stress only when the US Census Bureau's categorization was used, which highlights the importance of carefully selecting and describing methods to categorize rural versus urban residence.

Adult↗

PubMed1990

Breast feeding promotion in an urban and a rural Jamaican hospital.

Breast feeding promotion has been a national priority in Jamaica since the mid-1970s. Despite this effort, breast feeding rates have continued to decline there, especially in urban areas. Studies of the role of health professionals in promoting breast feeding have shown that specific practices encourage breast feeding, while others discourage it. In the context of declining breast feeding in a nation committed to promoting it, the goal of this study was to explore the relationship between specific health professional practices, mothers' breast feeding, and mothers' knowledge of breast feeding in rural and urban Jamaica. To accomplish this goal, a structured interview was administered to 113 mothers of infants age 0-6 months at one urban (n = 62) and one rural (n = 51) hospital, regarding (1) physician and nurse practices known to affect breast feeding, (2) mothers' own breast feeding practices, and (3) mothers knowledge of breast feeding issues. Physician and nurse visits were also directly observed to confirm responses given to the questionnaire and to assess the resources devoted to teaching mothers about breast feeding. While extensive lectures, posters and pamphlets promoting breast feeding were provided for mothers at the urban hospital, far fewer educational resources were available for mothers at the rural hospital. Overall, however, health professional practices discouraging breast feeding were observed more frequently at the urban hospital than at the rural hospital, whereas practices promoting breast feeding were more common at the rural hospital. At the rural hospital, mothers' breast feeding practices more closely approximated recommendations than at the urban hospital.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Adolescent↗

PubMed1992

Health effects of unemployment--I. Long-term unemployed men in a rural and an urban setting.

Between 1983 and 1987 in an urban and a rural Dutch area employed and long-term unemployed men, between 30 and 50 years old, have been interviewed. The main topics of the study were the independent health effects of unemployment, the factors related to these health effects and socio-cultural differences. Long-term unemployment is considered to be a social phenomenon that restructures individual's social positions into multiple deprived positions. The characteristics of this restructuring are a relative lack of socio-structural resources, low social participation and emotional problems. Independent effects on the health status (perceived somatic and depressive complaints and self reported chronic disease) have been found to exist among both the rural and the urban unemployed. There is no clear effect of unemployment on health care use, but regional differences in health care use among rural and urban unemployed have been found. Between the urban and rural unemployed there are more similarities than differences in the factors and models explaining ill-health. The most important factors are: loneliness, disadvantageous consequences of unemployment, money worries and ill-health prior to job loss (health selection at the labour market). One important difference is that among the urban unemployed the perceived size of the network is an explanatory factor, but among the rural unemployed perceived stigmatization is more important. In general, ill-health can be better explained for the rural unemployed than for the urban unemployed.

Adult↗