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Results for “Reality Testing”

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PubMed1989

Judgments of origin and generation effects: comparisons between young and elderly adults.

In 2 experiments, young and elderly adults were required to both read words, and generate words by completing word fragments. Subjects were then required to recognize those words that had been presented earlier; for those words that they recognized they judged whether the items had initially been presented in read or generate form. Generation effects (better memory for words that were generated as compared with words that were read) of similar magnitude were observed for both young and older adults. The older adults were consistently less accurate than the younger adults in their judgments of origin. In addition, the young adults exhibited a bias to respond "read" for these judgments. In contrast, the older adults either exhibited a neutral response bias or were biased to respond "generate." Age-related differences in the encoding or retrieval of information about cognitive operations do not provide a good account of the results. Alternative accounts are described.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Three-year-olds' difficulty with the appearance--reality distinction: is it real or is it apparent?

Four experiments investigated 3-year-olds' understanding of the appearance-reality distinction using both J. Flavell, F. Green, and J. Flavell's (1986) typical verbal response paradigm and a new, nonverbal response paradigm. Both paradigms require verbal questioning, but the former involves a verbal response and the latter a nonverbal one. In the nonverbal paradigm, children were shown a deceptive object and asked to respond, nonverbally, to 2 different functional requests, 1 concerning the object's apparent property and 1 its real property. In the verbal paradigm, children were asked to state what the object looked like and what it really was. In the verbal paradigm, children were about 30% correct (a rate matching that in the literature), whereas over 90% of the same children were correct in the nonverbal paradigm. Participating in the verbal paradigm first had a detrimental effect on the children's performance in the nonverbal paradigm, but the reverse order had no effect. These results suggest that 3-year-olds can represent two conflicting properties of a deceptive object and thus understand the appearance-reality distinction in the nonverbal domain.

Child Development↗
PubMed2004

Mothers' behavior modifications during pretense and their possible signal value for toddlers.

An important issue for understanding early cognition is why very young children's real-world representations do not get confused by pretense events. One possible source of information for children is the pretender's behaviors. Pretender behaviors may vary systematically across real and pretend scenarios, perhaps signaling to toddlers to interpret certain events as not real. Pretender behaviors were examined in 2 experiments in which mothers were asked both to pretend to have a snack and really to have a snack with their 18-month-olds. Episodes were analyzed for condition differences in verbal and nonverbal behaviors, including smiling, looking, laughter, and functional movements. Reliable differences were found across conditions for several variables. In a 3rd experiment, children's apparent understanding of pretense in relation to their mothers' behaviors was examined, and significant associations were found with some of the mothers' behavioral changes but not others. This work provides a first inroad into the issue of how children learn to interpret pretense acts as pretense.

Attention↗
PubMed2004

Reality compared with its alternatives: age differences in judgments of regret and relief.

Three experiments examined developmental change in children's understanding of regret and relief, two second-order emotions whose quality depends on a comparison between reality and "what might have been." In Experiment 1, participants 7 years of age and older, but not 5-year-olds, made regret-related emotion-response judgments that took into account a comparison of reality with its alternatives. In Experiment 2, 5-year-olds judged that an individual would feel better, rather than worse, when a counterfactual outcome was better than what actually occurred (the opposite of the pattern found with older children and adults). Experiment 3 focused on the understanding of relief. In contrast to the findings from Experiment I, the 7-year-olds in Experiment 3 made their judgments solely on the basis of what actually occurred.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Audience-tuning effects on memory: the role of shared reality.

After tuning to an audience, communicators' own memories for the topic often reflect the biased view expressed in their messages. Three studies examined explanations for this bias. Memories for a target person were biased when feedback signaled the audience's successful identification of the target but not after failed identification (Experiment 1). Whereas communicators tuning to an in-group audience exhibited the bias, communicators tuning to an out-group audience did not (Experiment 2). These differences did not depend on communicators' mood but were mediated by communicators' trust in their audience's judgment about other people (Experiments 2 and 3). Message and memory were more closely associated for high than for low trusters. Apparently, audience-tuning effects depend on the communicators' experience of a shared reality.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Information quantity and quality affect the realistic accuracy of personality judgment.

Triads of unacquainted college students interacted in 1 of 5 experimental conditions that manipulated information quantity (amount of information) and information quality (relevance of information to personality), and they then made judgments of each others' personalities. To determine accuracy, the authors compared the ratings of each judge to a broad-based accuracy criterion composed of personality ratings from 3 types of knowledgeable informants (the self, real-life acquaintances, and clinician-interviewers). Results supported the hypothesis that information quantity and quality would be positively related to objective knowledge about the targets and realistic accuracy. Interjudge consensus and self-other agreement followed a similar pattern. These findings are consistent with expectations based on models of the process of accurate judgment (D. C. Funder, 1995, 1999) and consensus (D. A. Kenny, 1994).

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Obsessive-compulsive disorder as a disturbance of security motivation.

The authors hypothesize that the symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), despite their apparent nonrationality, have what might be termed an epistemic origin--that is, they stem from an inability to generate the normal "feeling of knowing" that would otherwise signal task completion and terminate the expression of a security motivational system. The authors compare their satiety-signal construct, which they term yedasentience, to various other senses of the feeling of knowing and indicate why OCD-like symptoms would stem from the abnormal absence of such a terminator emotion. In addition, they advance a tentative neuropsychological model to explain its underpinnings. The proposed model integrates many previous disparate observations and concepts about OCD and embeds it within the broader understanding of normal motivation.

Affect↗
PubMed1990

Prospects for a cognitive neuropsychology of autism: Hobson's choice.

Leslie (1987b) proposed a new, metarepresentational model for the cognition of pretense. This model identified a cognitive component necessary for the normal development of a "theory of mind." In this article, the relation of the child's early affective sensitivities to this component is considered. Early affective sensitivities seem to be cognitively distinct from the metarepresentational component. Childhood autism provides an interesting opportunity to study this problem. Three theoretical possibilities for the pathogenesis of this condition are presented: (a) a basic affective disorder as proposed by Hobson (this issue, p. 114), (b) a basic affective disorder and a basic cognitive disorder jointly, and (c) a basic cognitive disorder. There is little evidence for Option a, and a growing body of evidence supports Option c. Option b is sidelined for the time being on grounds of parsimony. Leslie's original theoretical proposals are revised, and some resulting implications are presented for the future investigation of the cognitive neuropsychology of autism.

Autistic Disorder↗
PubMed2005

The relation between source memory and episodic memory: comment on siedlecki et Al. (2005).

On the basis of an interesting structural equation analysis, K. L. Siedlecki, T. A. Salthouse, and D. E. Berish argued that "it may not be meaningful to refer to source memory as a construct distinct from episodic memory" (p. 31). This commentary highlights that this same point could also be made on conceptual grounds. To suggest that source and episodic memory are distinct concepts would confound tasks with theoretical constructs. All episodic tasks involve making attributions about the origin of mental experiences (source monitoring). Conversely, source memory tasks are designed to investigate episodic memory. No task is special, but each may be useful, depending on the focus of interest.

Aged↗
PubMed1990

Formal operational thinking: the role of cognitive-developmental processes in adolescent decision-making about pregnancy and contraception.

The role of formal operational thinking in adolescent decision-making about pregnancy and contraception is explored through an integration of the cognitive-developmental and pregnancy-contraception literatures. The ways in which cognitive-developmental change mechanisms initiate or hinder formal thinking on pregnancy-contraception are considered, and implications for counseling pregnant adolescents are discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1993

Childhood play in normality, pathology, and therapy.

Links are sought between concepts of play pertaining to normal development, pathology, and therapeutic interventions. To this end, the components and functions of play are delineated, the evolution of the concept of play is reviewed, an integrated course for its development is advanced, and a framework and guidelines for its assessment in the clinical context are offered. Issues concerning the role of play in therapy are discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Beyond phrenology, at last.

Although integration is a widely acknowledged goal in neuroscience, our approach to the function of biological entities often places boundaries that defy integration. Mapping across systems - from the genome to cognitive function - will require innovative methods that can identify every contributing component to a function, and instantaneously scale numerous changes in large data sets to consequences over the entire biological hierarchy.

Brain↗
PubMed1994

Philosophy, biology and mental disorder.

The biological model has become the touchstone for our thinking on mental disorder. The success of this model has relegated opposing views to the sidelines. Philosophers have been considering the nature of mind for well over 2500 years, and their speculations may provide a useful antidote to the creeping reductionism and materialism inherent in simple biology. The emphasis in philosophical theories is on the nature of the mental and the structuring role of the mind in our construction of reality. This paper focuses on three philosophers, Kant, Heidegger and Husserl, and their contribution to our understanding of the nature of psychopathology. The biological theory is re-examined from the differing perspectives offered, and some of the assumptions on which it is based are subjected to criticism. The emphasis, found in the philosophical theories, on the mental as opposed to the physiological aspects of the mind, is considered to be more germane to the practical and therapeutic concerns of those who must deal with the dis-ease of mental disorder.

Biological Psychiatry↗