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PubMed1991

Youth fitness testing: the effect of percentile-based evaluative feedback on intrinsic motivation.

This study was a test of Deci and Ryan's (1985) cognitive evaluation theory in a fitness testing situation. More specifically, it was a test of Proposition 2 of that theory, which posits that external events that increase or decrease perceived competence will increase or decrease intrinsic motivation. Seventh and eighth grade schoolchildren (N = 105) volunteered for an experiment that was ostensibly to collect data on a new youth fitness test (the Illinois Agility Run). After two untimed practice runs, a specially adapted version of the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI) was administered as a pretest of intrinsic motivation. Two weeks later when subjects ran again, they were apparently electronically timed. In reality, the subjects were given bogus feedback. Subjects in a positive feedback condition were told their scores were above the 80th percentile, while those in a negative feedback condition were told their scores were below the 20th percentile. Those in a control condition received no feedback. The IMI was again administered to the subjects after their runs. Multivariate and subsequent univariate tests were significant for all four subscale dependent variables (perceived interest-enjoyment, competence, effort, and pressure-tension). Positive feedback enhanced all aspects of intrinsic motivation, whereas negative feedback decreased them. In a further test of cognitive evaluation theory, path analysis results supported the prediction that perceived competence would mediate changes in the other IMI subscales. Taken together, these results clearly support cognitive evaluation theory and also may have important implications regarding motivation for those who administer youth fitness tests.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1997

On the factorial and construct validity of the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory: conceptual and operational concerns.

The Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI) has been gaining acceptance in the sport and exercise domain since the publication of research by McAuley, Duncan, and Tammen (1989) and McAuley, Wraith, and Duncan (1991), which reported confirmatory support for the factorial validity of a hierarchical model of intrinsic motivation. Authors of the present study argue that the results of these studies did not conclusively support the hierarchical model and that the model did not accurately reflect the tenets of cognitive evaluation theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985) from which the IMI is drawn. It is also argued that a measure of perceived locus of causality is required to model intrinsic motivation properly. The development of a perceived locus of causality for exercise scale is described, and alternative models, in which perceived competence and perceived locus of causality are held to have causal influences on intrinsic motivation, are compared with an oblique confirmatory factor analytic model in which the constructs are held at the same conceptual level. Structural equation modeling showed support for a causal model in which perceived locus of causality mediates the effects of perceived competence on pressure-tension, interest-enjoyment, and effort-importance. It is argued that conceptual and operational problems with the IMI, as currently used, should be addressed before it becomes established as the instrument of choice for assessing levels of intrinsic motivation.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Students' perceptions of the motivational climate, achievement beliefs, and satisfaction in physical education.

The present study examined the relationship between students' perceptions of the motivational climate and beliefs about the causes of success, preference for challenging tasks, and satisfaction in physical education. Responses of 50 female and 46 male students (M age = 12.08 years; SD = .72) showed that perceptions of a mastery-oriented motivational climate were related to the belief that motivation or effort caused success and satisfaction. In contrast, perceptions of a performance climate were related to the belief that deception caused success and related negatively to the students' preference for challenging tasks. Results of hierarchical regression analyses revealed that perceptions of the motivational climate explained a significant amount of unique variance in the students' responses after controlling for dispositional goal orientations. The results suggest that the teacher can influence the salience of a mastery-oriented climate and, in so doing, optimize a child's motivation in physical education.

Achievement↗
PubMed2002

Achievement goals, perceived motivational climate, and students' self-reported mastery behaviors.

Achievement goals and perceived motivational climate are two important constructs in achievement goal theory, and they play critical roles in student motivation and behavior Traditionally, these two constructs have been examined separately. The present study examined relationships between the two constructs and students' self-reported mastery behaviors as well as age-related differences. Three hundred eight students in 4th, 8th, and 11th grades completed questionnaires assessing their achievement goals, perceived motivational climate, and perceptions of their mastery behaviors. Results indicated that achievement goals and perceived motivational climate were related to students' self-reported mastery behaviors. However, the relations varied depending on the students' ages. The older students, compared to the younger ones, appeared to be inclined more toward ego orientation and the ego-involved climate. A multiple achievement goals perspective is recommended for future research on relationships among achievement goals, perceived motivational climate and achievement-related cognitions, and behaviors in physical education.

Achievement↗
PubMed2006

Students' motivational processes and their relationship to teacher ratings in school physical education: a self-determination theory approach.

In the present study, we used a model of motivation grounded in self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1991; Ryan & Deci, 2000a, 2000b, 2002) to examine the relationship between physical education (PE) students' motivational processes and ratings of their effort and persistence as provided by their PE teacher. Data were obtained from 394 British secondary school students (204 boys, 189 girls, 1 gender not specified; M age = 11.97 years; SD = .89; range = 11-14 years) who responded to a multisection inventory (tapping autonomy-support, autonomy, competence, relatedness, and self-determined motivation). The students' respective PE teachers subsequently provided ratings reflecting the effort and persistence each student exhibited in their PE classes. The hypothesized relationships among the study variables were examined via structural equation modeling analysis using latent factors. Results of maximum likelihood analysis using the bootstrapping method revealed the proposed model demonstrated a good fit to the data, chi-squared (292) = 632.68, p < .001; comparative fit index = .95; incremental fit index = .95, standardized root mean square residual = .077; root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = .054 (90% confidence interval of RMSEA = .049 -.060). Specifically, the model showed that students who perceived an autonomy supportive environment experienced greater levels of autonomy, competence, and relatedness and had higher scores on an index of self-determination. Student-reported levels of self-determined motivation positively predicted teacher ratings of effort and persistence in PE. The findings are discussed with regard to enhancing student motivation in PE settings.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Treatment motivation and therapeutic engagement in prison-based substance use treatment.

Studies of community-based substance use treatment show that motivation for treatment is critical for clients becoming therapeutically engaged. Little research, however, has been conducted on therapeutic engagement in corrections-based substance use treatment. The current study examines the association between internal treatment motivation and therapeutic engagement for a sample of 220 male substance-using offenders enrolled in a corrections-based treatment program. Findings showed that problem recognition and desire for help were associated with cognitive indicators of therapeutic engagement, specifically confidence in and commitment to treatment. Increased focus on internal motivation for treatment may lead to more effective treatment for substance-using offenders. Pretreatment motivational interventions therefore are recommended for substance-using offenders with low internal motivation for treatment.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Using motivational activities to facilitate treatment involvement and reduce risk.

The current study examined the effectiveness of motivational modules the authors designed to enhance motivation and confidence for treatment. One hundred and forty-six (146) probationers either received treatment as usual ("standard treatment") or standard treatment enhanced with the motivational modules. The results indicate that probationers who received the motivational activities were more motivated to be involved in treatment and reduce risky behaviors (e.g., drinking, drug use, risky sex) toward the end of the residential phase of treatment. Methods to improve the intervention, including the development of 10 to 15 minute long micromodules to serve as booster sessions, are discussed.

Adult↗
PubMed1998

Psychological distress and burnout among buddies: demographic, situational and motivational factors.

Work-related psychological distress (burnout) is a probable cause of drop-out among emotional support volunteers (buddies) who work with people living with AIDS. In addition to the emotional suffering and disruption to both the buddy and the buddied, burnout has significant cost implications for voluntary organizations in terms of training and recruitment. The aim of this study was to identify the demographic, situational and motivational factors associated with burnout among buddies with the intention of identifying individuals at risk at the recruitment stage. A cross-sectional single cohort postal questionnaire study design was used. All buddies registered with the Terrence Higgins Trust, a non-profit making organization set up in the UK to provide education about HIV/AIDS and care for people affected by the virus, were invited to participate. Psychological morbidity was measured with the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, burnout with the Maslach Burnout Inventory and motivation was assessed using the Calvert Motivation Checklist. Information on the buddy relationship and the demographic details of each buddy was also collected. Of 586 questionnaires distributed, 324 (55%) were returned. More than 24% of buddies were classified as probable cases of burnout on one or more of the MBI scales but this is lower than has been reported in medical and nursing staff working with people living with AIDS. Although a number of demographic, situational and motivational factors were associated with burnout, logistic regression models were unable to identify a useful proportion of individuals at risk. It was concluded that although burnout is an important psychological factor in retaining volunteers, it was not possible to identify individuals at risk of burning out either from their self-reported motivations or from demographic factors.

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome↗
PubMed2004

Factors that motivate and deter rehabilitation educators from participating in distance education.

The major purpose of the study was to conduct exploratory research on the motivational levels of rehabilitation educators whose programs have Comprehensive Service Personnel Development (CSPD; Department of Education grant) grants targeted toward distance education. Additionally, the study attempted to identify whether significant factors existed that would inhibit faculty participation in distance education. There were three research questions to examine: (a) Do distance educators and non-distance educators differ significantly in intrinsic motivational factors? (b) Do distance educators and non-distance educators differ significantly in extrinsic motivational factors? and (c) Do distance educators and non-distance educators differ significantly in inhibiting factors? The results showed that rehabilitation faculty with CSPD grants who are distance educators are more extrinsically motivated (such as increase in salary, monetary support for participation, job security, working conditions, technical support, and requirement by department) than non-distance educators. There were no significant differences in levels between distance educators and non-distance educators that are intrinsically motivated (scholarly pursuit, personal research tool, and job satisfaction). There was no significant difference between distance educators and non-distance educators in inhibiting factors.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Motives for and against injecting drug use among young adults in Amsterdam: qualitative findings and considerations for disease prevention.

To elucidate injection initiation and risky injection practices among young drug users (YDUs) in Amsterdam, this study identifies self-reported motives for injecting and not injecting to inform interventions to be targeted at issues personally relevant for this population. A qualitative study was performed using in-depth interviews to obtain retrospective drug use histories. Recruitment took place both directly (by street outreach, outreach at methadone outposts) and indirectly (by respondent-driven sampling). The study started in the year 2001 and included 50 YDUs, aged 18-30, of which 18 had a history of injecting. Reasons for not starting injection were fears of needles, overstepping a limit, damage to appearance, fears of missing veins and causing abscesses, and illnesses. Reasons for starting injection were stronger effect or rush, curiosity, economy, knowing injectors, and perceived lack of danger to health. Motives for injecting and not injecting can differ widely individually. Some strong motives are hardly addressed by prevention programs and should inform new prevention initiatives. Users' own motives for not injecting should be promoted, whereas their motives for initiation should be counter-balanced with factual information.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

Motivational intervention as applied to systems change: the case of dual diagnosis.

The concept of motivational interviewing is based on helping individual clients build and sustain a commitment to reach and carry out a decision to change. In this paper, the motivational interviewing model is applied to systems change. Different stages of involvement and readiness to change are identified within systems which closely resemble those found in individuals. When applied to a system, we call this process "Motivational Intervention." In this paper, the motivational intervention model is applied to a psychiatric system of health care delivery where large numbers of psychiatric patients are found to also have substance use-related problems. Several Italian health districts invited the authors to present a series of lectures and workshops in order to facilitate the incorporation of substance user treatment into existing psychiatric services. Using the motivational intervention model to determine where the system was in the process of change, we then identified the tasks necessary to facilitate further change.

Clinical Trials as Topic↗
PubMed2004

Combining stepped-care approaches with behavioral reinforcement to motivate employment in opioid-dependent outpatients.

Employment is associated with improved treatment outcome for opioid-dependent outpatients receiving methadone (e.g., Platt, 1995). Opioid-dependent individuals typically enter treatment unemployed and many remain unemployed despite reductions in heroin use. Additional interventions are needed to motivate employment seeking behaviors and outcome. This article reports on a promising approach to reduce the chronic unemployment commonplace in treatment-seeking, opioid-dependent patients--a "stepped care" service delivery intervention that incorporates multiple behavioral reinforcements to motivate patient participation in and adherence to the treatment plan. This therapeutic approach (Motivated Stepped Care--MSC; Brooner and Kidorf (2002) was refined and modified to motivate and support a range of positive treatment behaviors and outcomes in patients with opioid-dependence (Kidorf et al. 1999), including job-seeking and acquisition. Patients who are unemployed after one year of treatment are systematically advanced to more intensive steps of weekly counseling and remain there until employment is attained. Those who remain unemployed despite exposure to at least 4 weeks of counseling at the highest step of care (Step 3, which is 9 h weekly of counseling) are started on a methadone taper in preparation for discharge, which is reversible upon attaining a job. This article describes the MSC approach and presents rates of employment for patients who were judged capable of working (n = 228). A review of medical and billing records during August--September 2002 revealed that the great majority of these patients were employed (93%), usually in full-time positions. Employment was associated with less frequent advancement to higher intensities of weekly counseling because of drug use. Further, multiple indices of improved employment stability and functioning, including months of work, hours of work, and annualized salary, were associated with better drug use outcomes. These data suggest that the MSC intervention is an effective platform for motivating and supporting both job seeking and employment in patients with chronic and severe substance use disorder.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

"Partying" hard: party style, motives for and effects of MDMA use at rave parties.

This study examines motives for and consequences of MDMA use at different types of dance parties in the Netherlands (2001 and 2002). Participants were 490 visitors of three different types of rave parties, "club/mellow," "trance/mainstream," and "hardcore" (34% female, mean age 22.3 years, 76.5% MDMA users). Partygoers are motivated primarily by the energetic and euphoric effects they expect from MDMA. Quantity of MDMA use is associated with hardcore and trance/mainstream party style, with the motives of euphoria, sexiness, self-insight, and sociability/flirtatiousness (negative), and with gender, educational level (negative), and MDMA use by friends. Women report more (acute) negative effects--depression, confusion, loss of control, suspiciousness, edginess, nausea, dizziness--than men; and in particular, women who are motivated to cope with their problems by using MDMA are at risk. Men's polydrug use and notably their motivation to conform to friends by using MDMA are associated with negative effects.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Flow-based model of computer hackers' motivation.

Hackers' psychology, widely discussed in the media, is almost entirely unexplored by psychologists. In this study, hackers' motivation is investigated, using the flow paradigm. Flow is likely to motivate hackers, according to views expressed by researchers and by hackers themselves. Taken as granted that hackers experience flow, it was hypothesized that flow increases with the increase of hackers' competence in IT use. Self-selected subjects were recruited on specialized web sources; 457 hackers filled out a web questionnaire. Competence in IT use, specific flow experience, and demographic data were questioned. An on-line research was administered within the Russian-speaking community (though one third of Ss are non-residents of Russian Federation); since hacking seems to be international, the belief is expressed that the results are universal. The hypothesis is not confirmed: flow motivation characterizes the least and the most competent hackers, and the members of an intermediate group, that is, averagely competent Ss report the "flow crisis"-no (or less) flow experience. Two differing strategies of task choice were self-reported by Ss: a step-by-step increase of the difficulty of choices leads to a match of challenges and skills (and to preserving the flow experience); putting choices irrespective of the likelihood of solution leads to a "flow crisis." The findings give productive hints on processes of hackers' motivational development. The flow-based model of computer hackers' motivation was developed. It combines both empirically confirmed and theoretically possible ways of hackers' "professional" growth.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Effects of consumer motives on search behavior using internet advertising.

Past studies on uses and gratifications theory suggested that consumer motives affect how they will use media and media contents. Recent advertising research has extended the theory to study the use of Internet advertising. The current study explores the effects of consumer motives on their search behavior using Internet advertising. The study employed a 2 by 2 between-subjects factorial experiment design. A total of 120 subjects were assigned to an experiment condition that contains an Internet advertisement varying by advertising appeals (i.e., rational vs. emotional) and product involvement levels (high vs. low). Consumer search behavior (measured by the depth, breadth, total amount of search), demographics, and motives were collected by post-experiment questionnaires. Because all three dependent variables measuring search behavior were conceptually related to each other, MANCOVA procedures were employed to examine the moderating effects of consumer motives on the dependent variables in four product involvement-advertising appeal conditions. Results indicated that main effects for product involvements and advertising appeals were statistically significant. Univariate ANOVA also showed that advertising appeals and product involvement levels influenced the total amount of search. Three-way interactions among advertising appeals, product involvement levels, and information motive were also statistically significant. Implications and future research directions are discussed.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Motivations for play in online games.

An empirical model of player motivations in online games provides the foundation to understand and assess how players differ from one another and how motivations of play relate to age, gender, usage patterns, and in-game behaviors. In the current study, a factor analytic approach was used to create an empirical model of player motivations. The analysis revealed 10 motivation subcomponents that grouped into three overarching components (achievement, social, and immersion). Relationships between motivations and demographic variables (age, gender, and usage patterns) are also presented.

Achievement↗
PubMed2004

Motivation-dependent responses in the human caudate nucleus.

Motivation is a complex process that leads to completion or avoidance of a behavior. Past research strongly implicates the basal ganglia in a circuit integral for the control of motivation. Specifically, the human striatum has been shown to process reward information, differentiating between monetary rewards and punishments in recent neuroimaging experiments. It is unclear, however, how the dorsal striatum, particularly the caudate nucleus, responds to changes in the motivational context of a task. Using an event-related design, where participants were given positive and negative feedback upon guessing the value of an unknown card, we manipulated the motivational context of the task by dividing trials into periods of high incentive (where visual feedback indicated monetary rewards and punishments) and low incentive (where visual feedback indicated only accuracy). We found that activity in the caudate nucleus was strongly influenced by the different incentive periods. The hemodynamic response was characterized by a larger rise at the onset of trials and larger differences between positive and negative feedback during periods of high incentive. These results suggest that changes in motivation are capable of modulating basal ganglia activity, and further support an important role for the caudate nucleus in affective processing.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Motivation and maternal presence during induction of anesthesia.

BACKGROUND: The authors developed a measure to determine whether maternal motivation to be present during induction (Motivation for Parental Presence during Induction of Anesthesia [MPPIA]) is related to children's anxiety during the induction process. METHODS: Mothers and children (aged 2-12 yr) undergoing outpatient, elective surgery and general anesthesia were enrolled in this study (n = 289 dyads). Items to assess motivation for parental presence during induction were selected by experts in anesthesiology, psychology, and child development; mothers completed the resulting 14-item measure as well as assessments of anxiety and coping style. Children's anxiety and compliance was assessed during induction of anesthesia. Factor analysis was performed, and maternal motivation was then examined against children's anxiety during induction of anesthesia. RESULTS: Factor analysis resulted in four scales with a total variance of 72.3%: MPPIA-Desire, MPPIA-Hesitancy, MPPIA-Anxiety, and MPPIA-Preparation. Analysis supported the reliability (0.89-0.94) and validity of the MPPIA. The authors found that mothers with high MPPIA-Desire and low MPPIA-Hesitancy had children with significantly higher anxiety (P < 0.0001) during induction of anesthesia, as compared with mothers with low MPPIA-Desire and MPPIA-Hesitancy. The authors also found that highly motivated mothers reported significantly higher levels of anxiety (P = 0.007). CONCLUSION: Clinicians should be aware that many mothers who have a high desire to be present in the operating room are very anxious and that their children are likely to exhibit high anxiety levels during induction of anesthesia.

Adult↗