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PubMed1978

Discriminated response and incentive processes in operant conditioning: a two-factor model of stimulus control.

Understanding stimulus control generated in instrumental learning requires the direct investigation of discriminated response and reinforcer (incentive) processes acquired exclusively through the response-reinforcer contingencies operating on complex (multicomponent) baselines. Two series of stimulus-compounding studies accomplished this direct investigation. In one series, the independent variable was the relative reinforcement between schedule components; in the second series, it was relative response rate between components. Stimulus-compounding tests revealed that response and incentive processes enhanced each other when in agreement, counteracted each other when in opposition, and produced intermediate results when only one factor was operating. This pattern of results led to the conclusion that these factors were algebraically combining and to the development of a response/incentive matrix reflecting these dynamics. This two-factor analysis was extended to the peak-shift effect in stimulus generalization experiments and to the generation of inhibitory control. Two decades of stimulus compounding and peak-shift research were organized within this two-factor framework, extending this traditional approach to learning to active research areas heretofore not systematically considered in these terms.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1982

Incentive theory: II. Models for choice.

Incentive theory is extended to account for concurrent chained schedules of reinforcement. The basic model consists of additive contributions from the primary and secondary effects of reinforcers, which serve to direct the behavior activated by reinforcement. The activation is proportional to the rate of reinforcement and interacts multiplicatively with the directive effects. The two free parameters are q, the slope of the delay of reinforcement gradient, whose value is constant across many experiments, and b, a bias parameter. The model is shown to provide an excellent description of all results from studies that have varied the terminal-link schedules, and of many of the results from studies that have varied initial-link schedules. The model is extended to diverse modifications of the terminal links, such as varied amount of reinforcement, varied signaling of the terminal-link schedules, and segmentation of the terminal-link schedules. It is demonstrated that incentive theory provides an accurate and integrated account of many of the phenomena of choice.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1985

Incentive theory: IV. Magnitude of reward.

Incentive theory is successfully applied to data from experiments in which the amount of food reward is varied. This is accomplished by assuming that incentive value is a negatively accelerated function of reward duration. The interaction of the magnitude of a reward with its delay is confirmed, and the causes and implications of this interaction are discussed.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1990

Incentives and competition in a worksite smoking cessation intervention.

We evaluated a worksite smoking cessation program that employed multicomponents including support groups, incentives, and competition. The combination of incentives and other components increased participation rates to over 80%. Forty-two percent of smokers were abstinent at six months, compared to 13 percent of a control group (difference 29 percent, 95% CI 9, 49).

Adult↗
PubMed1993

Work-site cardiovascular risk reduction: a randomized trial of health risk assessment, education, counseling, and incentives.

OBJECTIVES: This study reports an efficacy trial of four work-site health promotion programs. It was predicted that strategies making use of behavioral counseling would produce a greater reduction in cardiovascular disease risk factors than screening and educational strategies. METHODS: Twenty-eight work sites were randomly allocated to a health risk assessment, risk factor education, behavioral counseling, or behavioral counseling plus incentives intervention. Participants were assessed before the intervention and at 3, 6, and 12 months. RESULTS: Compared with the average of the health risk assessment and risk factor education conditions, there were significantly higher validated continuous smoking cessation rates and smaller increases in body mass index and estimated percentage of body fat in the two behavioral counseling conditions. The behavioral counseling condition was associated with a greater reduction in mean blood pressure than was the behavioral counseling plus incentives condition. On average among all groups, there was a short-term increase in aerobic capacity followed by a return to baseline levels. CONCLUSIONS: Work-site interventions that use behavioral approaches can produce lasting changes in some cardiovascular risk factors and, if implemented routinely, can have a significant public health impact.

Adult↗
PubMed1983

Skin temperature biofeedback: evaluation of positive and negative monetary incentives.

The purpose of the present experiment was to evaluate how training procedure and monetary incentive affect skin temperature biofeedback: A 3 (training procedure) X 3 (monetary incentive) design was employed. It was hypothesized that positive and negative monetary feedback would enhance temperature control. Motivation was manipulated by paying subjects 1 cent, 10 cents, or 20 cents for every 0.1 degree F they decreased their finger temperature over baseline for three days. Results revealed a significant monetary effect only during the first training day.

Biofeedback, Psychology↗
PubMed2006

Assessment of female participation in an employee 20-week walking incentive program at Marshfield Clinic: a large multispecialty group practice.

OBJECTIVE: We evaluated the short-term effect of a worksite-based walking incentive program to promote physical activity and well-being in employees of a private healthcare clinic. DESIGN: A prospective, observational follow-up study. SETTING: The study was conducted at Marshfield Clinic, a large private multispecialty group practice healthcare institution in Marshfield,Wisconsin, USA. PATIENTS: Subjects for this study were Marshfield Clinic physicians and staff. METHODS: From March 31, 2005 to August 20, 2005, physical activity level, body mass index (BMI) and other well-being characteristics were observed pre- and post-program among 191 female participants from the Marshfield Clinic. A brief Web site-accessible, self-reported survey assessed the effectiveness of the exercise program. RESULTS: Our data show a statistically significant (p <0.0001) increase in participants' physical activity level, while a significant (p = 0.021) decrease in mean BMI was observed. However, there was no evidence of our incentive program reducing participants' blood pressure. CONCLUSION: Preliminary findings of our study suggest that the goal of worksite programs designed to support employees in their efforts to improve or maintain their level of wellness is potentially achievable. Continuing research is needed to further assess whether persistent health benefits can be induced by worksite wellness programs.

Exercise↗
PubMed1991

Why walk when you can ride? Clinical ambulation incentives for the immobile elderly.

1. Gerontological nurses in long-term care settings should be selective in the use of wheelchairs for residents with ambulation ability. 2. The gerontological nurse specialist can facilitate change in a long-term care setting through the implementation of an ambulation incentive program. 3. The benefits of an ambulation incentive program support rehabilitation-focused care as opposed to custodial care in a long-term care facility. 4. Quality of life outcomes for elderly residents are supported through multidisciplinary collaboration in the implementation of an ambulation program.

Activities of Daily Living↗
PubMed2003

Exercise training program for older adults. Incentives and disincentives for participation.

The purpose of this study was to describe the incentives and disincentives for participating in an exercise training program for community-dwelling individuals 78 and older. One hundred forty-seven women and 62 men participated in this descriptive study, and ages ranged from 78 to 95 years (mean 82.7 +/- 4.1). Individuals were interviewed by phone about their decision to participate in an exercise program. Qualitative responses were analyzed using content analysis. Three main incentive themes emerged: Health Benefits, Psychological Benefits, and Positive Program Features. Disincentive themes included Competing Commitments, Doubts about Exercise, and Negative Program Features. To better tailor an exercise program to the needs of this older age group, nurses working with older adults should keep in mind the lifestyle, age-specific obligations, and set of values affecting this cohort's participation.

Aged↗
PubMed1985

New technology and economic incentives will spur the growth of dialysis at home.

Prospective reimbursement was HCFA's attempt to rein in the spiralling cost of the ESRD program. Its implementation would press far-ranging changes upon the operations of providers. As a supplier to the dialysis community. Travenol would also have to adapt if the implications desired by HCFA were likely to come to pass. It was crucial to our planning to assess and understand the implications of the new regulations. We examined two key assumptions in HCFA's design: whether home care was a feasible alternative to in-center care, and whether the costs at home were lower than in-center. CAPD, a relatively new home dialysis procedure, would be the likely target to absorb the bulk of the potential shift in patient referrals. Not an option for everyone, CAPD was limited by medical contraindications (e.g. diverticulitis) and by the requirements of self care. Yet the number of patients on CAPD had grown dramatically from its development in the late 1970s. Worldwide, the number of patients had grown to over 20,000. Despite its apparent success, many nephrologists remained skeptical that CAPD offered care comparable to in-center hemodialysis. Upon examination, it appeared that this controversy was fading as more and more evidence came to light suggesting equivalency. A shift in referral patterns looked feasible. To spur the shift, HCFA attempted to design economic incentives into the reimbursement system. The incentives relied on the costs of home dialysis being lower than those in-center--a fact thrown into question when HCFA's cost database was deemed of doubtful accuracy.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, U.S.↗
PubMed1988

State tax incentives for person giving informal care of the elderly.

Programs for informal caregivers of frail elderly can be adopted by States to address some of the problems associated with an expanding and costly long-term care system. In this article, highlights are given from a 3-year study of Idaho and Arizona tax incentive programs. Characteristics of informal caregivers and elderly participants are described, and elderly participants are compared with elderly nonparticipants and with the general elderly population. Tax incentives were positively related to the level of service and financial support provided by informal caregivers. Data were inadequate to determine whether the induced informal help substituted for public expenditures.

Aged↗
PubMed1988

Medicaid expenditures for the disabled under a work incentive program.

Congress enacted Section 1619 of the Social Security Act to enable the disabled receiving Supplemental Security Income (SSI) to obtain jobs and still retain Medicaid health benefits. Congress intended this work incentive to remove the fear of the severely disabled that by obtaining employment they would lose Medicaid benefits. Based on data from 11 States, our analysis found that Medicaid expenditures for Section 1619 enrollees were relatively small and only one-half the average Medicaid expenditure for the disabled. Retaining Medicaid appears to provide a significant work incentive because Medicaid expenditures represent 13 percent of Section 1619 enrollees' earnings.

Data Collection↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Incentives in research: ethical issues.

The participation of some subjects in research may be association with their receiving some compensation for their time and effort. Is the use of monetary or other nonmonetary incentives ethical? Do incentives make a study so enticing that it is difficult to resist being a participant? The authors discuss some relevant ethical questions that a researcher needs to address when providing stipends to study subjects. Additionally, there is a discussion of implications for nurses such as acquiring knowledge of research and ethics, creating an environment in which the patient's questions and any issues can be discussed, advocating for the patient who is being asked to participate, and the nurse's responsibilities when asked to help with recruitment efforts.

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome↗
PubMed2000

The effect of lesions of the insular cortex on instrumental conditioning: evidence for a role in incentive memory.

In three experiments, we assessed the effect of lesions aimed at the gustatory region of the insular cortex on instrumental conditioning in rats. In experiment 1, the lesion had no effect on the acquisition of either lever pressing or chain pulling in food-deprived rats whether these actions earned food pellets or a maltodextrin solution. The lesion did, however, attenuate the impact of outcome devaluation, induced by sensory-specific satiety, on instrumental performance but only when assessed in an extinction test. This effect was not secondary to an impairment in instrumental learning; in experiment 2, no evidence was found to suggest that the lesioned rats differed from shams in their ability to encode the specific action-outcome contingencies to which they were exposed during training. In experiment 3, however, lesioned rats were found to be insensitive to the impact of an incentive learning treatment conducted when they were undeprived; although, again, this deficit was confined to a test conducted in extinction. These results are consistent with the view that, in instrumental conditioning, the gustatory region of the insular cortex is involved in encoding the taste of food outcomes in memory and, hence, in encoding the incentive value assigned to these outcomes on the basis of prevailing motivational conditions.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed2000

Effect of timed incentives on subject participation in a study of long-term breast cancer survivors: are there ethnic differences?

The recruitment and retention of African Americans into cancer control studies presents a formidable task to the scientific and policy communities as well as patient and advocacy communities. The purpose of this investigation was to assess the role of a timed incentive schedule on response rates in a study of African American and white breast cancer survivors. A mailed quality-of-life survey battery was sent to 583 breast cancer survivors (50% African American, 50% white). Half of the participants received payment in advance, whereas the other half was promised payment. The overall response rate was 54% (n = 278). The timing of incentives did not affect participation rates in either ethnic group. About 51% of the respondents were from the payment-in-advance condition and 49% were from the paid-on-completion condition. Therefore, we conclude that payment on completion may be the more cost-effective approach in studies with higher socioeconomic status patients, such as this sample of breast cancer survivors.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Task-dependent changes in frontal brain asymmetry: effects of incentive cues, outcome expectancies, and motor responses.

The current study was designed to clarify the psychological functions most closely associated with frontal brain asymmetry. Electroencephalography (EEG) was recorded from 60 participants while they performed a delayed reaction time (RT) task that included manipulations of incentive, expectancy, and response. Significant alpha asymmetry effects were reflected in topographic differences across anterior EEG sites. Variations in monetary incentives resulted in parametric changes in anterior frontal alpha asymmetry. Manipulations of outcome expectancies were related to mid-frontal EEG changes that differed for men and women. Varied response requirements were related to central asymmetry patterns. Taken together, the findings suggest that regionally specific patterns of frontal asymmetry are functionally related to particular aspects of approach-withdrawal tendencies involved in the temporal guidance and regulation of goal-directed behavior.

Adult↗