Lateral hypothalamus destruction in infant rats produces consummatory deficits without sensory neglect or attenuated arousal.
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Effects of peripheral administration of recombinant human interleukin-1 beta on feeding behavior of the rat.
This study was undertaken to investigate the changes in feeding behavior, including ambulatory activity, induced by a single injection of Interleukin-1 beta (IL-1) (2 micrograms/rat) at 18:00, just before the dark phase. For this purpose, we used the Gunma University-type automatic apparatus for continuous and direct measurement of ambulation and drinking. A significant decrease in food intake was observed for 12 hours after treatment with IL-1. Peripheral administration of IL-1 also produced a marked decrease in ambulatory activity within 3 hours which continued for 6 hours. In addition, IL-1 produced a marked decrease in drinking behavior during the first 6 hours. We reported here the changes in consummatory and ambulatory behavior of rats after acute administration of IL-1. The sickness which IL-1 produced may, at least in part, contribute to these phenomena, although precise mechanisms are still unknown.
Animals↗
Opioids for hedonic experience and dopamine to get ready for it.
BACKGROUND AND RATIONALE: More than two decades ago, Wise proposed his "anhedonia hypothesis" to explain the role of dopamine in motivated behaviors. The hypothesis posits that dopamine mediates the pleasure experienced by reward obtainment. However, some experimental findings have contested this hypothesis and several authors have proposed alternative functions for dopamine with regard to motivation. Brain dopamine has been suggested to rather code for the preparatory aspects of behavior, while brain opioids seem to mediate the perception of the hedonic properties of rewards. OBJECTIVES: The main goal of this review is to reexamine dopamine and opioids involvement in feeding when different aspects such as the anticipatory, motivational and consummatory components of this behavior are taken into account, but also when the physiologic state of the organism and the palatability of the food are considered. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Altogether, the data presented point out for an implication of dopamine in the anticipatory/preparatory aspects of feeding more than on the motivational and consummatory aspects. However, dopamine involvement in the anticipatory/preparatory component of feeding seems specifically related to very relevant stimuli, such as highly palatable foods. On the other hand, our data, as well as those present in the literature, strongly suggest a role for opioids in food intake through their modulation of the hedonic perception of food. As a consequence, opioids are involved in those aspects of motivation driven by food palatability rather than by food homeostatic need.
Animals↗
Ethanol- and sucrose-reinforced appetitive and consummatory responding in HAD1, HAD2, and P rats.
INTRODUCTION: Ethanol-preferring (P) rats and high-alcohol-drinking (HAD1 and HAD2) rats have been selectively bred to consume greater amounts of ethanol than nonselected rat strains. These three rat lines also show increased levels of responding for ethanol in operant paradigms that assess a combined appetitive/consummatory response. METHODS: The present experiment used a model of reinforced responding that procedurally separates the appetitive, or seeking, response requirement from consummatory responding to compare seeking and intake responding in P and HAD rats. Subjects (n = 7 or 8 per group) were trained to make 25 lever-press responses, which were followed by 20 min of access to a sipper tube spout containing either 10% ethanol (10E) or (in separate groups of subjects) 3% sucrose (3S). After training, a single nonreinforced session was conducted to assess the limit to appetitive responding under extinction conditions. After this single nonreinforced session, three successive across-session breakpoint determinations were made for 10E and 3S by increasing the response requirement over days until subjects failed to complete the requirement. A final extinction session was then conducted. RESULTS: Appetitive responding during both the nonreinforced and breakpoint sessions indicated that P rats made significantly more responses overall than HAD rats in both the ethanol and sucrose groups. P rats also consumed more sucrose than HAD rats, with no differences in ethanol consumption between the lines (1.0-1.5 g/kg/20 min). Appetitive responding in the HAD rats in the ethanol groups was comparable to that reported previously for nonselected Long-Evans rats. CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate that appetitive and consummatory processes are distinct and that P rats have an increased tendency to both seek and drink ethanol and sucrose solutions, making this selected line useful when modeling both "craving" and "loss of control" related behaviors involved in excessive alcohol consumption.
Alcohol Drinking↗
Aromatase inhibition blocks the expression of sexually-motivated cloacal gland movements in male quail.
In Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica), activation of appetitive and consummatory aspects of male sexual behavior requires aromatization of testosterone (T) into estrogens. Appetitive male sexual behavior (ASB) is usually assessed with the use of a learned social proximity procedure. In the present experiment, we investigated the role of estrogens in the activation of an another index of ASB, the female-induced activation of rhythmic cloacal sphincter movements (RCSMs) that are produced in reaction to the visual presentation of a female. Consummatory sexual behavior (CSB) was also assessed by the frequency and latency of copulatory behaviors. Castrated male quail were treated with Silastic implants filled with T in association with chronic injections of the aromatase inhibitor Vorozole (R83842; 1mg/kg twice a day; CX + T + VOR group). Control birds were implanted with T capsules only (CX + T group). CSB was almost completely blocked by injections of the aromatase inhibitor. The RCSM frequency decreased progressively in the CX + T + VOR group by comparison with the CX + T group and was therefore significantly reduced at the end of the experiment. These results demonstrate that the frequency of RCSM, a second measure of ASB is, like the social proximity response and CSB, blocked by inhibition of estrogen production. It was shown previously that lesions of the preoptic area inhibit both aspects of the appetitive sexual behavior (proximity response and RCSM). It is therefore, likely that both responses are controlled, like copulation, by aromatase-containing neurons of the preoptic area.
Animals↗
Post-consummatory arousal of drive as a mechanism of incentive motivation.
A review of experimental papers on the problem of incentive motivation reveals little or no support for the hypothesis that conditioned food signals facilitate autochthonous instrumental responses (i.e., responses motivated by the same drive and rewarded by the same unconditioned stimulus). The existing data are explained most parsimoniously by assuming that reward, or its conditioned signal, inhibits the central drive process, and, that the termination of either primary (food US) or secondary (food CS) reward causes the rebound of drive which energizes instrumental behavior. This post-consummatory arousal of drive retains some specificity related to the reward and is assumed to represent a mechanism of the phenomena usually referred to as incentive motivation.
Animals↗
Relation of consummatory responses and preabsorptive insulin release to palatability and learned taste aversions.
The oral stimulation arising from food in the mouth produces a stereotyped sequence of ingestive consummatory responses in rats and a rapid release of insulin prior to the absorption of nutrients into the blood. Conversely, when noxious taste stimuli are infused into the mouth, a different, aversive set of consummatory responses is evoked, and no insulin is released. These experiments demonstrate that pairing a sapid taste solution with LiCl suffices to reverse the consummatory response sequence to subsequent presentations of that taste from ingestion to aversion and to abolish the preabsorptive release of insulin to that taste. This indicates an experience-produced shift in the palatability of the taste. It was further shown that a palatable but categorically noncaloric taste elicits behavioral ingestion but no insulin release, and it is concluded that separate but related control systems operate to produce consummatory behavior and ingestive neuroendocrine responses.
Animals↗
Effects of dietary and pharmacological manipulations on appetitive and consummatory aspects of feeding in non-human primates.
This study examined how pharmacological and behavioral manipulations affect appetitive and consummatory aspects of feeding of baboons. Baboons have access to food 24 h each day, but they must complete a two-phase operant procedure in order to eat. Responding on one lever during a 30-min appetitive phase was required before animals could start a consumption phase, i.e. a meal, where responding on another lever led to food delivery. Responding during the appetitive phase resulted in presentations of food-related stimuli only. Decreasing session length, increased appetitive behavior and increased meal size. Limiting the number of meals to a single 90 min meal each day but increasing the number of food pellets the animals received increased the size of meal, but did not increase appetitive behavior. These findings suggest that time since the previous meal has a greater effect on appetitive behavior than the size of the previous meal. Amphetamine (AMPH), which increases dopamine, decreased food intake at doses that did not affect appetitive behavior, indicating that appetitive and consummatory aspects of eating can be pharmacologically differentiated. Increasing how frequently animals could earn food-related stimuli in the appetitive phase and food in the consummatory phase increased both appetitive and consumatory behavior. Under these conditions, AMPH nearly doubled appetitive behavior at doses that decreased food intake by nearly 50 percent. When animals had one meal, of self-determined duration, meal size increased without affecting appetitive behavior, further demonstrating that appetitive behavior can be independent of the size of the previous meal and not predictive of the size of the subsequent meal. Under these conditions, AMPH decreased food intake at doses that did not affect appetitive behavior. In contrast, dexfenfluramine (DFEN), which increases serotonin, decreased both appetitive and consumatory behavior. Thus, it is possible to independently manipulate the appetitive and consummatory aspects of eating using both pharmacological and behavioral interventions indicating that it may be possible to develop medications that selectively affect appetitive or consummatory aspects of eating.
Amphetamine↗
Cerebral glucose utilization during conditioned sexual arousal.
Local cerebral glucose utilization was investigated in male rats during conditioned sexual arousal. Increased glucose utilization was found in three amygdaloid nuclei after exposure to a stimulus associated with exposure to a sexually active female. No changes were observed in areas known to be of crucial importance for the expression of consummatory aspects of sexual behavior. These results corroborate and extend previous results showing a dissociation between the expression of appetitive and consummatory aspects of sexual behavior at a neural level.
Amygdala↗
Electrophysiological responses of nucleus accumbens neurons to novelty stimuli and exploratory behavior in the awake, unrestrained rat.
To establish a physiological correlate of goal-directed and reward-seeking non-operant behaviors, we studied the electrophysiological activity of NAcc neurons in unrestrained, naive Sprague-Dawley rats. Our results showed an inhibitory response in 21% (7/34) of the recorded NAcc neurons during spontaneous nosepoking behavior and in 16% (4/25) of the NAcc neurons when rats were fed with a favorite novel food morsel (popcorn). These data suggest that a subgroup of NAcc neurons is actively modulated during motivated behavior and during consummatory events resulting in a suppression of neuronal activity.
Animal Feed↗
The ventral striatum in off-line processing: ensemble reactivation during sleep and modulation by hippocampal ripples.
Previously it has been shown that the hippocampus and neocortex can spontaneously reactivate ensemble activity patterns during post-behavioral sleep and rest periods. Here we examined whether such reactivation also occurs in a subcortical structure, the ventral striatum, which receives a direct input from the hippocampal formation and has been implicated in guidance of consummatory and conditioned behaviors. During a reward-searching task on a T-maze, flanked by sleep and rest periods, parallel recordings were made from ventral striatal ensembles while EEG signals were derived from the hippocampus. Statistical measures indicated a significant amount of reactivation in the ventral striatum. In line with hippocampal data, reactivation was especially prominent during post-behavioral slow-wave sleep, but unlike the hippocampus, no decay in pattern recurrence was visible in the ventral striatum across the first 40 min of post-behavioral rest. We next studied the relationship between ensemble firing patterns in ventral striatum and hippocampal ripples-sharp waves, which have been implicated in pattern replay. Firing rates were significantly modulated in close temporal association with hippocampal ripples in 25% of the units, showing a marked transient enhancement in the average response profile. Strikingly, ripple-modulated neurons in ventral striatum showed a clear reactivation, whereas nonmodulated cells did not. These data suggest, first, the occurrence of pattern replay in a subcortical structure implied in the processing and prediction of reward and, second, a functional linkage between ventral striatal reactivation and a specific type of high-frequency population activity associated with hippocampal replay.
Action Potentials↗
Differential regulation of the consummatory, motivational and anticipatory aspects of feeding behavior by dopaminergic and opioidergic drugs.
Various aspects of feeding behavior (eg consumption, motivation and anticipation) are regulated by homeostatic and hedonic systems, and are modulated by dopaminergic and opioid brain systems. Here, we have studied the modulation of these aspects of feeding behavior by opioid and dopaminergic neurotransmission while taking into account food palatability and homeostatic state. Foods that varied in palatability were presented to either food sated or food restricted rats following injections of different doses of naloxone, an opioid receptor antagonist, or flupenthixol, a dopaminergic receptor antagonist, in behavioral paradigms that measured different aspects of feeding. Naloxone decreased food intake in a dose-dependent manner in sated rats given access to palatable food, without modifying food intake in food restricted rats. Flupenthixol did not have any effect on food intake. With regard to motivation, which was tested in a straight alley, naloxone increased the latency to reach the food only in sated rats presented with palatable food. Flupenthixol did not modify the latency of any group. Conditioned locomotor activity to repeated food presentation, a measure of anticipation, is expressed only in food restricted rats. Naloxone did not modify anticipatory activity, whereas flupenthixol decreased it only in food restricted rats presented with palatable food. These results reinforce the idea that the opioid system regulates feeding through the modulation of the perceived palatability of food. The dopaminergic system seems to be more important for the regulation of anticipatory activity related to motivationally relevant stimuli.
Animals↗
Effects of neuropeptide Y on feeding microstructure: dissociation of appetitive and consummatory actions.
The effects of intracerebroventricular application of Neuropeptide Y (NPY) on licking microstructure for sucrose, saccharin, and water solutions were evaluated. In Experiment 1, NPY increased meal size for three sucrose concentrations (0.03 M, 0.3 M, and 1.0 M) by increasing licking burst number but not size and by extending meals more than four-fold in duration with a slow, sustained rate of ingestion in late phases of the meal. Results are consistent with the interpretation that NPY suppressed inhibitory postingestive feedback. Experiment 2 supported this conclusion. NPY significantly increased the number of meals initiated for water, 0.1% saccharin, and 1.0 M sucrose solutions, but meal size was only increased for 1.0 M sucrose. Therefore, NPY also increased appetitive feeding behaviors, but its consummatory effects were limited to caloric solutions. The results are discussed with regard to their potential to explain current discrepancies in the literature.
Analysis of Variance↗
Assessing appetitive and consummatory phases of ethanol self-administration in C57BL/6J mice under operant conditions: regulation by mGlu5 receptor antagonism.
RATIONALE: The development of mouse models of ethanol consumption and ethanol-seeking behavior is of particular importance in understanding the underlying mechanisms of drug abuse because these models can enable an analysis of an effect of specific genotype on drug-seeking behavior and the interaction of potential therapeutics with genotype. However, there are some limitations with present models, notably the inability to examine appetitive and consummatory behavior separately. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In the present study, C57BL/6 mice were trained to self-administer 10% ethanol in a modified operant protocol that allowed a clear delineation of consummatory and appetitive phases. The utility of this procedure was confirmed with the use of the metabotropic glutamate 5 (mGlu5) receptor antagonist 3-[(2-methyl-1,3-thiazol-4-yl)ethynyl]-pyridine (MTEP). RESULTS: Limited-access consumption during the dark phase of the light-dark cycle with intermittent access (every second or third day) led to a high level of consumption by the mice. MTEP caused a dose-dependent decrease in both the consumption of ethanol and the appetitive response for ethanol. Furthermore, this effect was unrelated to any effect of MTEP on locomotor activity. CONCLUSIONS: The model provides a useful paradigm for examining both the appetitive and consummatory phases of ethanol consumption in mice; furthermore, the data indicate mGlu5 receptors are involved in both phases.
Alcohol Drinking↗
Lesions of the central nucleus of the amygdala. II: Effects on intraoral NaCl intake.
Bilateral lesions of the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeAX) disrupt both need-free and need-induced NaCl intake. Quite surprisingly, in response to sodium depletion, the same rats who fail to augment their NaCl consumption dramatically increase the numbers of oral motor behaviors associated with ingestion that they display when NaCl is presented intraorally. The present study attempts to resolve these apparently contradictory results by measuring the intake of a NaCl solution delivered directly into the mouth. Controls enhanced their intraoral intake of 0.5 M NaCl in response to sodium depletion while CeAX rats did not. CeAX rats, however, showed discriminative intake responses to tastes. Like controls, CeAX rats promptly rejected 0.3 mM quinine infusions and ingested 1.0 M sucrose for prolonged periods. In addition, food deprivation enhanced the intraoral intake of a dilute sucrose solution in both CeAX and control rats. Thus, in the CeAX rat some tastes and some internal states modulate intake as they do in intact rats. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that central nucleus of the amygdala damage interferes with the consummatory phase of NaCl intake behaviors.
Administration, Oral↗
Accumbal dopamine concentration during operant self-administration of a sucrose or a novel sucrose with ethanol solution.
The goal of the current study was to determine the effect of operant self-administration of (1) 10% sucrose and (2) a first-time solution of 10% sucrose with 5% or 10% ethanol, on dopamine concentration in the nucleus accumbens. We used an operant procedure that distinguished lever pressing (an appetitive behavior) from drinking to better assess the effect of fluid consumption on accumbal dopamine activity. Male Long-Evans rats were trained to bar press by using 10% sucrose reinforcement, and they were required to emit an escalating number of bar presses across daily sessions. Completion of the response requirement resulted in 20 min of access to the solution. Microdialysis samples were collected before, during, and after bar pressing and drinking, and content of ethanol and dopamine was determined. Dopamine concentration in the dialysate was slightly, but significantly, increased in both groups during lever pressing. However, after consumption began, dopamine concentration increased in the sucrose, but not in the sucrose with ethanol, group, followed by a return to baseline values. Ethanol consumption was low (0.27 +/- 0.02 g/kg) and corresponded to low dialysate ethanol concentrations, which appeared within 5 min of drinking. These results demonstrate that operant self-administration of sucrose increases accumbal dopamine concentration during consummatory phases of behavior, but that a similar increase is not apparent when a novel, perhaps aversive, solution (sucrose with ethanol) is presented. This difference may be due to the sensory-related stimulus properties of each solution. In addition, oral self-administration of ethanol at 0.27 +/- 0.02 g/kg over 20 min is not sufficient for stimulation of dopamine activity in the nucleus accumbens.
Animals↗
Inactivation of amino acid receptors in medullary reticular formation modulates and suppresses ingestion and rejection responses in the awake rat.
The lateral medullary reticular formation (RF) is the source of many preoromotor neurons and is essential for generation of ingestive consummatory responses. Although the neurochemistry mediating these responses is poorly understood, studies of fictive mastication suggest that both excitatory and inhibitory amino acid receptors play important roles in the generation of these ororhythmic behaviors. We tested the hypothesis that amino acid receptors modulate the expression of ingestion and rejection responses elicited by natural stimuli in awake rats. Licking responses were elicited by either intraoral (IO) gustatory stimuli or sucrose presented in a bottle. Oral rejection responses (gaping) were elicited by IO delivery of quinine hydrochloride. Bilateral microinjection of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist d-[(3)-2-carboxypiperazin-4-yl]-propyl-1-phosphonic acid (D-CPP) suppressed licking and gape responses recorded electromyographically from a subset of orolingual muscles. Likewise, infusion of the non-NMDA receptor antagonist 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione (CNQX) significantly reduced licking and gape responses but was accompanied by spontaneous gasping responses. Rats still actively probed the bottle, indicating an intact appetitive response. Neither D-CPP nor CNQX differentially affected ingestion or rejection, suggesting that the switch from one behavior to the other does not simply rely on one glutamate receptor subtype. Nevertheless, a glutamate receptor-mediated switch from consummatory behavior to gasps after CNQX infusions suggests a multifunctional substrate for coordinating the jaw and tongue in different behaviors. Bilateral infusions of the GABA(A) receptor antagonist bicuculline or the glycine receptor antagonist strychnine enhanced the amplitude of IO stimulation-induced oral responses. These data suggest that the neural substrate underlying ingestive consummatory responses is under tonic inhibition. Release of this inhibition may be one mechanism by which aversive oral stimuli produce large-amplitude mouth openings associated with the rejection response.
6-Cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione↗
Drinking and feeding induced by jugular and portal infusions of 2-deoxy-D-glucose.
Intravenous infusions of three levels of 2-deoxy-D-glucose (2DG) were made through chronically implanted jugular and portal cannulas in rats. Food and water intakes were unaffected by 100 mg/kg 2DG, enhanced by 200 and 400 mg/kg 2DG, and unrelated to the route of administration. Drug-induced drinking occurred as readily when food was present as in its absence. Infusions of 2DG also produced stupor and ataxia whose severity was proportional, as was feeding and drinking, to the dose administered. Drinking induced by 2DG is inconsistent with the glucoprivic theory of feeding, and it was proposed that the consummatory and aberrant behaviors elicited by 2DG may result from hypoglycemia-induced seizures in limbic structures of the brain.
Animals↗