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PubMed1999

Comparison of starch digestibility of a blended food prepared with and without extrusion cooking.

OBJECTIVE: To compare starch digestibility from a maize-soy blended food with and without extrusion cooking. DESIGN: Resistant starch, soluble and insoluble dietary fibres were measured in vitro before and after extrusion. Starch digestibility was assessed in 8 volunteers who took, in a randomised order, a test meal with either 100 g extruded (EF) or non-extruded (NEF) blended flour cooked 15 min at 80 degrees C in 500 ml of water. SETTING: Research ward for healthy volunteers. SUBJECTS: Healthy volunteers. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Starch digestibility was measured by 13C enrichment of breath samples for 8 h. Breath H2 concentration was measured during 12 h to assess bacterial fermentation in the colon. Volunteers reported hunger on a visual scale every hour for 8 h. RESULTS: In vitro resistant starch, soluble and insoluble dietary fibers were higher in NEF than in EF (5.4 vs 1.1, 0.7 vs 0.5, and 13.3 vs 10.4% dw respectively). In vivo, the area under curve (AUC) for 13CO2 excretion during 8 h was not significantly different for NEF and EF (10.3+/-1.3 vs 9.1+/-0.5 mmol/min, respectively). AUC for H2 excretion during 12 h was significantly higher for EF than for NEF (26.9+/-5.6 vs 14.1+/-4.7 mL, P<0.05). AUC for satiety was marginally higher with EF (12.6+/-1.6) than for NEF (10.0+/-2.1) (P=0.06). CONCLUSIONS: Extrusion cooking does not seem to substantially improve blended foods digestibility. Extrusion of high fibre flours may promote carbohydrate fermentation in the colon and increase satiety.

Adult↗

PubMed1998

Evaluation of the extent and type of bacterial contamination at different stages of processing of cooked ham.

In an attempt to determine the composition and origin of the spoilage flora of refrigerated vacuum-packed cooked ham, the changes in microbial numbers and types were followed along the processing line. Results revealed Lactobacillus sake and Leuconostoc mesenteroides ssp. mesenteroides as the major causative agents of spoilage of sliced ham stored at 4 degrees C and 12 degrees C, due to recontamination in the cutting room. On the contrary, the progressive deterioration of whole ham under the same storage conditions was associated with a non-identifiable group of leuconostoc-like bacteria. Except for lactic acid bacteria, no other organism grew in vacuum packs of either sliced or whole ham. Although atypical leuconostocs could not be detected among isolates recovered from freshly produced whole ham, they appeared to survive cooking and proliferate during storage. Neither these organisms however, nor Lact. sake and Leuc. mesenteroides were important in curing and tumbling as carnobacteria, mainly Carnobacterium divergens, and Brochothrix thermosphacta dominated at this stage. A progressive inversion of the ham microflora from mostly Gram-negative at the beginning of processing to highly Gram-positive prior to cooking was noted. Listeria monocytogenes cross-contaminated ham during tumbling. However, the pathogen was always absent from the vacuum-packed product provided that heating to a core temperature of 70 degrees C occurred and recontamination during slicing and packing was prevented. The percentage distribution of different species of lactic acid bacteria as well as the uncommon phenotypic characteristics of some strains were discussed.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Mycotoxins inactivation by extrusion cooking of corn flour.

AIMS: To evaluate the effects of the extrusion cooking process on the inactivation of mycotoxins in corn flour. METHODS AND RESULTS: Samples of corn flour experimentally contaminated with aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) (50 ppb) and deoxynivalenol (DON) (5 ppm) were extruded. The effects of three extrusion variables (flour moisture, extrusion temperature and sodium metabisulphite addition) were analysed according to a two-level factorial design. The process was effective for the reduction of DON content (higher than 95%) under all the conditions assessed, but was only partially successful (10-25%) for the decontamination of AFB1. CONCLUSION: Extrusion cooking is effective for the inactivation of DON but is of limited value for AFB1, even if metabisulphite is added. More severe extrusion conditions are needed for the detoxification of AFB1. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: As contamination with DON occurs mainly in the field prior to harvesting and that of AFB1 is normally produced during grain storage, maize is often contaminated with DON but not with AFB1. Under these conditions, the described extrusion process can be used for the detoxification of DON. The addition of sodium metabisulphite did not significantly affect the inactivation of AFB1. Extrusion cooking is therefore an appropriate treatment for vomitoxin-contaminated maize in countries where, because of the prevailing conditions, these are the only toxins present.

Aflatoxin B1↗

PubMedDate not supplied

The formation and occurrence of amino acid pyrolysates and related mutagens in cooked foods.

The classes of cooked foods that contain detectable levels of mutagenic activity are discussed together with the effects of different cooking procedures on the extent of mutagen formation. Analytical procedures that have so far been devised to quantify the concentrations of specific mutagenic compounds are described and the levels of these species that have been detected in cooked foods are detailed.

Amino Acids↗

PubMed1996

A UK retail survey of aflatoxins in herbs and spices and their fate during cooking.

A survey of aflatoxins in herbs and spices has been carried out and cooking experiments conducted to assess the stability of aflatoxin in spice sauces. Of 157 retail samples which included curry powders, pepper, cayenne pepper, chilli, paprika, ginger, cinnamon and coriander, nearly 95% of samples contained below 10 micrograms/kg total aflatoxins and only nine samples had higher levels. The highest concentration in a retail sample was 48 micrograms/kg in a chilli powder. In addition to retail sampling, 14 consignments of whole chilli and chilli powder were sampled at the port of entry. Only two samples, both chilli powder, were above 10 micrograms/kg; containing 35 and 51 micrograms/kg total aflatoxins. Cooking experiments showed that aflatoxin levels in spiced sauces are not reduced by domestic cooking with either microwave or conventional gas oven heating.

Aflatoxins↗

PubMed1994

Bioavailability of selenium from raw and cooked ground beef assessed in selenium-deficient Fischer rats.

OBJECTIVE: The literature on the bioavailability of selenium (Se) from meats, especially beef, is meager, and that which existed when this research began suggested that Se was not highly bioavailable. In addition, much of the analytical values for Se in beef predated the Food and Drug Administration's 1973 approval of Se as an additive to feeds and mineral premixes of livestock. DESIGN: One hundred and thirty-six weanling female Fischer 344 rats were divided into two dietary groups: the selenium deficient group in which animals were fed a torula yeast (TY) basal diet which contained 0.008 mg/kg Se and the control group in which animals were fed the TY diet to which was added 0.10 mg/kg Se as sodium selenite. RESULTS: After 6 weeks of dietary treatment liver glutathione peroxidase (GSHPx) activity had fallen in the Se-deficient rats to 2.4% of that of control rats. At this time (week 6) rats from the Se-deficient TY diet were refed diets containing 0.10 mg/kg Se as selenite, selenate, raw or cooked ground beef that had been freeze-dried. During the Se-repletion period rats were sacrificed at weeks 1, 3, 5 and 8. Liver GSHPx activity and total Se levels in liver and muscle tissue were the criteria of Se bioavailability. After 8 weeks of Se resupplementation the recovery of liver GSHPx activity compared to the control animals (set at 100%) were selenite (98%, p > 0.05), selenate (117%, p < 0.05), raw beef (127%, p < 0.05) and cooked ground beef (139%, p < 0.05). Total Se in both liver and muscle tissue reflected the liver GSHPx activity with the total Se concentration in tissues being highest for cooked beef. CONCLUSION: The data suggest that bioavailability of Se from ground beef is greater than that from either selenite or selenate.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Body size and physical activity levels of adults on Rarotonga, the Cook Islands.

Few studies of physical activity and energy expenditure have been carried out in the Pacific Region. In this study, the physical activity levels (PALs) of adult Cook Islanders living a largely modernised lifestyle by age group and occupation category were determined by a 3 day activity recall diary method. The period of observation included the previous Sunday, as a representative non-working day. A volunteer sample of 332 Cook Islanders aged 22 to 86 years was obtained from the total adult population of Rarotonga. Older adults are significantly less active than younger adults during the working week, but not during the weekend. Males are more physically active than females during the working week, but not on weekends. The mean weekday PAL of males engaged in traditional subsistence or who are unemployed is 1.88, while the mean weekday PAL of females engaged in traditional subsistence or who are housewives is 1.69. Male manual workers have a weekday PAL of 1.96, while female manual workers have a weekday PAL of 1.67. The weekday PAL values for those employed in clerical and administrative work are 1.82 (males) and 1.64 (females), while values for professionals are 1.76 (males) and 1.65 (females). Weekday physical activity is negatively associated with age, in nonlinear fashion. The PALs of adult Cook Islanders living a largely modernised lifestyle is lower in older age groups but does not vary by occupation category.

Adult↗

PubMed2002

In vitro accessibility of carotenes from green leafy vegetables cooked with sunflower oil or red palm oil.

Although vegetables and fruits are readily available and consumed in most areas of Tanzania, vitamin A deficiency is still prevalent. The objective of the present study was to measure the in vitro accessibility (available for absorption) of alpha-carotene and beta-carotene in vegetable relishes prepared with or without oil. Derived results were used to calculate the contribution of vegetable relish to recommended daily intake of retinol. Five sundried green leafy vegetables from Tanzania were cooked without oil, with sunflower oil or with red palm oil. The total amount and in vitro accessibility of alpha-carotene and beta-carotene from a portion (100 g) of vegetable relish was determined. The in vitro method used simulated the digestion process in the gastrointestinal tract. Carotenoids released after digestion were quantified using high-performance liquid chromatography. The total amount of beta-carotene varied between 1211 and 3659 microg/100 g among the five vegetable sources studied. From green leaves cooked without oil, 8-29% of the beta-carotene content became accessible after in vitro digestion and 39-94% from leaves cooked with sunflower oil or red palm oil. Adding red palm oil instead of sunflower oil resulted in about twice as much accessible beta-carotene, due to the high accessibility of its beta-carotene content. The red palm oil contributed also a considerable amount of alpha-carotene. The results showed that by eating vegetable relishes with added oil daily, it should be possible to provide the recommended intake level of vitamin A.

Absorption↗

PubMed2003

Effect of cooking on oxalate content of pulses using an enzymatic procedure.

An enzymatic method proposed for the determination of oxalate in urine is adapted for the estimation of soluble oxalate content in beans, chickpeas and lentils. Oxalates were extracted in water by refluxing for 2 h. The method is based on the oxidation of oxalate by the oxidase and the determination of the resulting hydrogen peroxide, which in presence of peroxidase, 3-methyl-2 benzotiazinolone and 3-dimethylamino benzoic, gives an indamine compound with an absorption maximum at 590 nm. The linearity (from 0.015 to 0.6 mM) of the method is adequate to the analysis of oxalate contents in pulses, and the inter-day precision of the method expressed as relative standard deviation was good (3.01%), with an accuracy of (98.7+/-2.5%) estimated by recovery assays. This method is applied to estimate the losses of soluble oxalate as a consequence of cooking. All the cooking procedures reduce the soluble oxalate content, but microwave and industrial procedures are more effective than traditional domestic cooking.

Fabaceae↗

PubMed1990

Proposed structures for an amino-dimethylimidazofuropyridine mutagen in cooked meats.

New analytical data allow the structure of a potent mutagen previously reported present in cooked meats to be proposed. The mutagen was isolated from a fried mixture of beef, creatine and milk, simulating a meat recipe previously shown to produce this compound. High-resolution mass spectra indicate a mol. wt of 202 and the formula C10H10N4O. Mutagenic activity was 10,000 TA1538 revertants per microgram in the Ames Salmonella test. From the NMR data, peaks showing an amino group at 6.812 p.p.m. and an N-methyl group at 3.520 p.p.m. were found, typical for the amino-imidazo structure commonly found in cooked meats. Additional signals at 2.440 p.p.m. (three protons), 7.653 (one proton) and 6.531 (one proton) were observed. A structure of 2-amino-(1 or 3),6-dimethylfuro[2,3(or 3,2)-e]imidazo- [4,5-b]pyridine was proposed based on the mass and NMR spectral data and comparison to literature compounds. The methylimidazofuropyridine reported here is probably related to another mutagen in cooked meats with a mol. wt of 216 with an additional methyl group on either the furan or pyridine rings.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

Case-control study of indoor cooking smoke exposure and cataract in Nepal and India.

BACKGROUND: The prevalence of cataract is higher in developing countries, and in both developed and developing countries more females than males are blind from cataracts. Three epidemiological studies have associated indoor cooking with solid fuels (e.g. wood or dung) and cataract or blindness. However, associations in these studies may have been caused by unmeasured confounding. METHODS: A hospital-based case-control study was conducted on the Nepal-India border. Cases (n = 206) were women patients, aged 35-75 years with confirmed cataracts. Controls (n = 203), frequency matched by age, were patients attending the refractive error clinic at the same hospital. A standardized questionnaire was administered to all participants. Logistic regression analysis involved adjustment for age, literacy, residential area, ventilation, type of lighting, incense use, and working outside. RESULTS: Compared with using a clean-burning-fuel stove (biogas, LPG, or kerosene), the adjusted odds ratio (OR) for using a flued solid-fuel stove was 1.23 [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.44-3.42], whereas use of an unflued solid-fuel stove had an OR of 1.90 (95% CI 1.00-3.61). Lack of kitchen ventilation was an independent risk factor for cataract (OR 1.96; 95% CI 1.25-3.07). CONCLUSION: This study provides confirmatory evidence that use of solid fuel in unflued indoor stoves is associated with increased risk of cataract in women who do the cooking. The association is not likely to be due to bias, including confounding, and strengthens the findings of three previous studies. Replacing unflued stoves with flued stoves would greatly reduce this risk, although cooking with cleaner-burning fuels would be the best option.

Adult↗

PubMed1979

Digestibility of raw and cooked starches from legume seeds using the laboratory rat.

The in vivo digestibility and growth responses to diets containing raw and cooked legume starches were determined using male Wistar rats. These starches were obtained from seven legumes including smooth- and wrinkled-seeded field peas, navy beans, kidney beans, garbanzo beans, mung beans and lentils. Wheat and potato starch diets were fed for comparative purposes. With the exception of potato and the field pea starches, rats fed uncooked starch diets had higher weight gains than those fed cooked starch diets. The starches from wheat and all legumes, excluding the high-amylose wrinkled pea, were nearly 100% digestible but the legume starches reduced the digestibility of casein protein by 3 to 4%. Raw potato starch was shown to be only 57% digestible. The starches from potato and wrinkled pea reduced the digestibility of casein protein to 87% and gave high cecum weights. These characteristics were not altered by cooking the starch of wrinkled pea. The starches of smooth-seeded peas, lentils and all beans were highly digestible, showed no adverse effects on growth and were comparable to wheat starch in this evaluation.

Animals↗

PubMed2002

Thermal inactivation D- and Z-values of Salmonella and Listeria innocua in fully cooked and vacuum packaged chicken breast meat during postcook heat treatment.

Studies were conducted to determine thermal inactivation D- and z-values of Salmonella and Listeria innocua in fully cooked and vacuum-packaged chicken breast meat. Fully cooked chicken breast meat products that were obtained from three different sources with differing formulations were uniformly inoculated with a cocktail of Salmonella (including Senftenberg, Typhimurium, Heidelberg, Mission, Montevideo, and California) or L. innocua at approximately 10(7) cfu/g. The inoculated meat samples were vacuum-packaged and then heat-treated at a temperature of 55 to 70 C for 5 to 90 min. After heat treatment, the samples were immediately cooled in an ice-water bath. Survivors of Salmonella and L. innocua were enumerated for each sample. D- and z-values of Salmonella and L. innocua were determined for each product and compared among the products. Source and formulation did not cause significant differences in the D- and z-values of Salmonella or L. innocua among the three fully cooked and vacuum-packaged chicken breast meat products.

Animals↗

PubMed2006

Effects of various fat sources, alpha-tocopheryl acetate, and ascorbic acid supplements on fatty acid composition and alpha-tocopherol content in raw and vacuum-packed, cooked dark chicken meat.

A factorial design was used to study the effects of dietary fat sources (beef tallow, fresh and oxidized sunflower oils, and linseed oil), alpha-tocopheryl acetate (0 and 225 mg/kg), and ascorbic acid (0 and 110 mg/ kg) supplementation on fatty acid composition, as well as on fat and alpha-tocopherol content in vacuum-packed raw and cooked meat stored at -20 degrees C. Raw meat fatty acid composition was affected by dietary fat sources and tocopheryl acetate supplementation. After cooking, meat composition was only affected by dietary fat sources. Birds fed linseed oil yielded meat rich in n-3 fatty acids, especially linolenic acid, which provides about 20% of the adequate intake for this fatty acid. Birds fed sunflower or oxidized sunflower oil produced meat rich in n-6 fatty acids, whereas those fed beef tallow resulted in meat rich in saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids. Raw and cooked dark chicken meat alpha-tocopherol content was only affected by tocopherol supplementation. Supplementation with alpha-tocopheryl acetate led to alpha-tocopherol-enriched meat, which provides about 25% of the recommended dietary allowance. Moreover, this content in vacuum-packed samples was not modified even after 7 mo of storage at -20 degrees C.

Animal Feed↗

PubMed2005

In vitro and in situ growth characteristics and behaviour of spoilage organisms associated with anaerobically stored cooked meat products.

AIMS: Understanding spoilage caused by different types of spoilage organisms, associated with vacuum-packaged sliced cooked meat products (CMP). METHODS AND RESULTS: First, strains were characterized in a broth at 7 degrees C under anaerobic conditions to compare their growth rate, acidifying character and metabolite production under conditions simulating refrigerated vacuum-packaged conditions. Brochotrix thermosphacta grew faster than the lactic acid bacteria (LAB). Within the group of the LAB, all strains grew fast except Leuconostoc mesenteroides subsp. dextranicum and Leuconostoc carnosum. Secondly, the organisms were inoculated on a model cooked ham to better understand the relationship between spoilage, microbial growth, pH, metabolite production and accompanying sensory changes. Most rapidly growing strains were Leuc. mesenteroides subsp. mesenteroides followed by B. thermosphacta, while Leuc. mesenteroides subsp. dextranicum and Leuc. carnosum grew very slowly compared with the other LAB. Brochotrix thermosphacta caused sensory deviations at a lower cell number compared with the LAB. The related pH changes, metabolite production and sensory perception are presented. CONCLUSIONS: In this pure culture study, B. thermosphacta and Leuc. mesenteroides subsp. mesenteroides had the highest potential to cause rapid spoilage on CMP. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: A systematic study on the behaviour of spoilage organisms on a model cooked ham to establish the relationship between microbial growth, pH, metabolite formation and organoleptic deviations.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

Outbreak of campylobacteriosis following pre-cooked sausage consumption.

OBJECTIVES: A small outbreak of campylobacteriosis involving three cases was investigated in terms of Campylobacter types present in the suspect food (pre-cooked sausages) and clinical samples from the cases. METHOD: Foods and faecal samples from people involved in the incident, which occurred in Christchurch, New Zealand, were tested for the presence of Campylobacter and identification of the species made. Isolates were typed by Penner serotyping and macrorestriction analysis using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). Investigations were conducted as to whether the contamination was on the surface or the interior of the sausages. RESULTS: All isolates from food and faecal samples were identified as C. jejuni and were indistinguishable from one another by the typing methods employed. Only the surfaces of the sausages were contaminated. Three other isolates of an indistinguishable subtype were isolated from campylobacteriosis cases in Christchurch occurring over approximately the same period. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: Given the rarity of the subtype isolated from the three family members and the three other cases, it is possible that the outbreak was larger than the initial investigation revealed. It is likely that the sausages were contaminated after they had been cooked by the retailer and were not reheated prior to consumption. This report illustrates the role of cross-contamination in an outbreak with an unusual food vehicle for campylobacteriosis. Physical separation of cooked and raw product is necessary to prevent recurrences of outbreaks similar to the one described here.

Campylobacter Infections↗

PubMed1995

Growth and toxin production by non-proteolytic and proteolytic Clostridium botulinum in cooked vegetables.

Growth and toxin production by proteolytic and non-proteolytic strains of Clostridium botulinum have been followed in 28 cooked puréed vegetables prepared under strict anaerobic conditions and incubated at 30 degrees C for up to 60 d. Toxin production was confirmed in 25 of the cooked vegetables inoculated with a suspension of spores of proteolytic strains of types A and B, and in 13 inoculated with a suspension of spores of non-proteolytic strains of types B, E and F. For both proteolytic and non-proteolytic strains, a trend was identified correlating growth and toxin production with the pH of the cooked puréed vegetables.

Bacterial Toxins↗

PubMed1978

Formation of mutagens in beef and beef extract during cooking.

Mutagens, distinguishable from benzo[a]pyrene and from mutagenic amino acid and protein pyrolysis products, are formed when ground beef is cooked in a home hamburger cooking appliance or when beef stock is concentrated, by boiling, to a paste known commercially as beef extract. "Well-done" hamburgers contain about 0.14 part per million of the mutagens, and beef bouillon cubes which contain beef extract about 0.1 part per million. Since such mutagens may be potentially carcionogenic and are formed during ordinary cooking procedures, their occurrence raises questions about possible risks to human health.

Animals↗